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MANUAL 

-OF- 

HORTICULTURE 




MANUAL 

—OF— 

HORTICULTURE 

— FOR- 

Grade and High Schools 




— BY— 

S. S. BUSCH. B. S. 

— AND- 

E. E. GUSTIN, B. S. 

In 

Agriculture and Horticulture 

'08. of W. S. C. 






Copyright, 1913, by 

S. S. BUSCH and E. E. GUSTIN 



©C!,A34 35 0:j 



Contents 



Subjects. Pages 

1. Structure of Blossoms and Setting Fruit 5-6 

2. Description of Fruit 6-7 

3. Picking 7-11 

4. Grading 11-14 

5. Packing 14-27 

6. Respiration of Apples 27-28 

7. Storage of Fruit 28-33 

8. Fruit Market 33-34 

9. Geography of Fruit Growing 34.35 

10. Sites . . . '. 35-36 

11. Kind of Soils 36-37 

12. The Tilling of Fruit Lands 37-38 

13. Drainage 38-41 

14. Windbreaks 41 

15. Soil Fertility 41-45 

16. Irrigation 45-48 

17. Growth of Fruit Trees Compared with Other Crops 48-54 

18. Propagation of Plants 54-72 

19. Plant Study and Organs of Vegetation 72-86 

20. Buds and Branches 86-91 

21. Planting an Orchard 91-99 

22. Pruning 99-106 

23. Pruning the Apple 106-109 

24. Pruning the Pear 109-111 

25. Pruning the Quince . 111-112 

26. Pruning the Peach 112-120 

27. Pruning the Apricot, Cherrv, Plum 120-122 

28. Thinning \ 122-126 

29. Grape Culture 126-137 

30. Strawberry Culture 137-140 

31. Blackberry and Raspberry Culture 140-142 

32. Currant and Gooseberrv Culture 142 

33. Ornamental ' 143-144 

34. Ornamental Trees 144-150 

35. Weather 150-151 

36. Dew and Frost 151-156 

37. Studv of Insects 156-193 

38. Studv of Plant Diseases 193-212 

39. Spraying 212-216 

40. Sulphur-lime Calendar 217 

41 . Spraying Calendar 218 



EXPLANATION. 

1. The manual is intonded for the second year of high school, but i,t , can,, readily 
be used in other grades: first semester to page 99; second semester,, manual 
completed. 

2. The aim is not only to give an outline of the principal subjects of horticulture, 
arranged according to seasons, but also to explain and illustrate each subject. 

3. Further help is given by referring to a number of reference books and bulletins. 

4. Each school should have all the given references referred to in the manual. 

5. All the essential statements that each pupil finds Avhen reading should be 
copied in a note book and referred to at the time of the recitatioiil ' ■ 



ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. 

I. The writers are under special indebtedness to: 

a. A. L. Melander and H. B. Humphrey of the Washington State College fo't 
permitting the use of the Sulphur-lime Calendar and' Orchard Spray. Calendar. 

b. Louis Michaelson of the Horticulture Union, G. ■ L. Hamilton of . the Fruit 
Growers' Association, and Frank Kinsey, for tlieir -helpful suggestions in pre- 
paring the manuscript on grading and packing; and A. Lundstrum for mak: 
ing the draAvings for the apple and the pear packs and also for Figure's 73, 
74 and 77. ' ' '' 

c. F. A. Huntley, State Commissioner of Horticulture, (cuts 175, 179, 180) ; 
T. 0. Morrison, District Plorticulture Inspector for Yaldma and Kittitas 
Counties, (cut 177) ; C. J. DaVise, who has special charge of insect pests and. 
fungi for Yakima Valley Fruit Growers' Associatipn, for their helpful sug- 
gestions in preparing the manuscript on insects and plant diseases. 

d. Colorado Experiment Station for cuts 114, 134; California Experiment Sta- 
tion for cuts 141, 142, 143, 170, 171, 173, 174, 176, 178; Xew Hampshire. Ex- 
periment Station for cuts 5, 167, 168, 169, 172; Nebraska Experiment Station 
for cut 181; New York Experiment Station for cuts 1 and 2,- Maryland Ex- 
periment Station for cuts 97, 98, 90, 100, 103, 104, 107, 108; Iowa Experiment 
Station for cuts 135, 162 to 166; JNfontana Experiment Station for cut 136. 

e. American Book Company for cuts from the following books : , 

1. Andrews' Botany, cuts 3, 4, 6, 55, 56, 57, 60, 61. 62. 63. 68, 70, 71, 72. 

2. Agriculture by Gofl' and Mayne for cuts 23, 30, 31, 69. 

f. The Macmillan Company for cuts from the following books: 

1. Principles of Agriculture by Bailey, cuts 24 to 29. 

2. Fruit Growing in Arid Regions by Paddock and Whipple, cuts 41, 43, 45, 
79, 89, 90, 93, 96, 109, 110. 

3. Pruning Book by Bailey, cuts 85 to 88, 101, 102, 105, 106. 

g. United States Department of Agriculture for cuts 32 to 40, 42, 44, 46, 48 to 
54, 58, 59, 64 to 67, 75, 76, 78, 80 to 84, 91, 92, 94, 95, 112, 113, 116 to 129, 
133, 137, 138, 140, 148, 149, 153, 154, 155, 157, 159, '160, 161. 



STRUCTURE OF BLOSSOMS 

AND 

SETTING OF FRUITS 




1. — Shows an 
Exp. Station.) 



apple blossom. 



The fruit buds on opening in the spring release one or more blos- 
som buds. 

a. For the formation of fruit buds — see buds. 

The blossom bud consists of floral envelopes and organs of repro- 
duction. 
The structure of an apple blossom — see flower. 

a. The floral envelopes. 

1. c — calyx, which is the outer 
green covering of the buds; 
its parts are sepals. 

2. pt — corolla, which is the in- 
ner colored, showy covering 
of the bud; its parts are 
petals. 

3. The calyx and corolla may 
be taken off and still it is 
possible for the fruit to de- 
velop. 

b. Organs of reproduction. 

1. st — stamens are the thread-like organs 
that produce the pollen. 

2. p — ^pistil is the ovule-bearing or seed- 
bearing organ. 

a. Stigmatic surface which is the rough, 
sticky surface of, the stigmas. 

b. o — ovary, which has five cavities, each 
containing two ovules. 

c. ov — ovules, which develop into seeds 
when fertilized. 

Setting of fruit. 

a. It is caused by the union of two elements. 

1. Nucleus of a plant cell borne in the pollen grain. 

2. Egg cell borne in the ovary. 

b. The stamens produce the pollen, which must reach the stigmatic 
surface of the pistil, either by insects or in some other way. 

c. When the stigmatic surface is ready to receive the pollen, it be- 
comes, covered with a sticky fluid which easily holds any of the 
pollen that happens to touch it. 

d. The pollen in a few hours after it reaches the stigmatic surface, 
sprouts and sends tubes down through the soft tissues of the 
style to the ovules. 

e. Through these tubes there passes into the ovary a substance 




Fig. 2. — Shows ap- 
ple blossom with the 
corolla and stamens 
removed. (N. T. Exp. 
Station.) 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUE.E 



which stimulates the ovules to growing into a seed, or in other 
words, which fertilizes them, 
f . Fruit is, ' ' The ripened ovary with its attachments. ' ' 

5. Sections of apples 

a. c — carpels. ' " "^ ' 

b. f — fibrovascu- 
lar bundles. 

c. pi — placenta. 

d. p — peduncle. 



e. s — seeds. 




Fig. 3. — Cross section of 
an apple. (Andrew's Bot- Fig-. 4. — ^Vertical section 
any.) of an apple. (Andrew's 

Botany.) 




6. Vascular system of an ap- 
ple. 

a. The vascular system 
has numerous sets of 
vessels or ducts that 
begin in the stem and 
extend to all parts of 
the apple. 

b. The ducts are food- 
conducting vessels. 

e. The fungus diseases 
follow the ducts from 
the rind to the core, 
and from core to rind. t-,. r c^. ^x, i <. * 

Fig. 5. — Shows the vascular system of an 

7. Study the structure of the ^pp^^- ^n. y. Exp. station.) 

blossoms and setting of fruits of the -different kinds of fruits in 
the spring. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE POME FRUIT. 

1. The Forms. 

a. The horizontal diameter is the distance from cheek to cheek at 
the widest point. 

b. The vertical diameter is the distance from stem to blossom. 

c. Kinds of forms. 

1. Round form when the two diameters are about equal. 

2. Oblong or long form when the vertical diameter is longer 
than the horizontal diameter. 

3. Oblate or flat form when the vertical diameter is distinctly 
shorter than the horizontal diameter. 

4. Conic form when the apple tapers toward the blossom end. 

5. Other forms ; as, oblong-conic, round-oblate, round-conic, 
oblique, regular and irregular. 



MANUAL OF 1 [ORTICULTURE 




_ d. Sizes of each variety. 

1. Small, medium, large and 
very large. 
e. Cavities. 

1. Stem end. 

a. Shallow, medium or deep. 

b. Narrow or medium 
broad. 

e. Abrupt, rounded or slop- 
ing. 

d. Smooth, regular, irregu- 
lar or wavy. 

2. Blossom end. 

a. Long or small. Fig. 6.— Shows the lenticels on the skin. 

b. Open, half open, or closed. 

f. Color, Fig". 6. 

1. Blush on cheek. 

2. Washed all over. 

3. Striped color. 

4. Solid color. 

5. Dots or lenticel. 

a. "White, gray or russet. 

b. Round or irregular. 

c. Sunken, raised or scattered 

g. Skin. 
1. Thin, thick, tough, or brittle. 

1 ■p'IpQ'U Fig. 7. — Shows a well-formed apple. 

1. Hard, soft, coarse, fine, crisp, spongy or woody. 

2. Dry, juicy, acid, sub-acid, flat or sweet. 

i. Each fruit should be studied as it is very important that the 
quality of each be known. 

1. Use "Systematic Pomology" by Waugh. 

2. "Fruit Growing," by Paddock and Whipple. 

PICKING. 

1. Time to pick. 

a. Perishable fruits. 

b. Depends on varieties. 

c. Distance to market. 

d. Period of organization. 

1. No marked lines between greenness and immaturity. 

2. No marked lines between ripeness and maturity. 

3. No marked lines between maturity and decay. 

4. One stage passes into the other insensibly. 

2. Classification. 

a. Rules for picking apples. 
1. General rules. 

a. Pick when seeds begin to turn a light brown and before 
they become dark around the edges. 

b. Pick when the color characteristic of variety has devel- 
oped ; as, Fameuse and Mcintosh. 




MANUAL OF HORTICULTUHE 

c. Pick when the fruit yields slightly to pressure. 

d. Pick when the stems readily separate from the spurs. 

2. Red apples are commonly gauged by their color. 

3. Red apples are sometimes left on trees after the seeds indi- 
cate maturitj'' to allow them to put on more color which they 
readily do under the influence of the bright days and frosty 
nights. 

4. Yellow apples are gauged by the color of the seeds. 

5. The picking after the seeds indicate ripeness, invites water 
core, and shortens the life of the fruit in storage. 

6. Apples that develop no red color are picked when full size, 
or begin to soften or part readily from the spurs. 

7. Early picking reduces the loss from wind storms and wind 
falls. 

8. Picking over the tree twice. 

a. First, taking off such apples that are well colored and 
up to size. 

b. Second, taking off those that have developed since first 
picking. 

9. Properly developed and well colored apples stand cold stor- 
age better. 

10. The hand should grasp the apple cautiously with the fore- 
finger at the stem and by a twist of the wrist, given with an 
upward or downward movement, un joints the stem from the 
fruit spur. 

11. Apples should not be grabbed and jerked off or shaken down 
nor clubbed off. 

12. Careless picking destroys many fruit spurs and injures the 
fruit by bruising. 

13. The fruit Avill not keep so well if the stems are pulled out, 
the skin broken, or flesh bruised. 

14. Some varieties, as Jonathan, should be picked before fully 
ripe to prevent rotting at the core. 

. Rules for picking pears. 

1. Some gather the fruit as soon as the seeds turn brown, if the 
shipment is any distance. 

2. The pear should be perfectly green and hard. 

3. The pears should be picked before they reach the stage of 
golden color. 

4. Determined by separating the fruit from the stem. 

a. The stems should easily part from the limbs by twisting 
or turning the fruit from the natural position with thumb 
and forefinger; or, 

b. Grasping the pear in the hand and turning it in an oppo- 
site direction from which it hangs. 

c. If they part from the twig easily, they are ready to pick. 

5. The size of the fruit is not a safe guide because young trees* 
and old trees with light crops will produce larger fruit than 
old trees heavily loaded. 

6. The proper size for a Bartlett pear is 21/4 inches; Comice, 
much larger; Winter Nellis, smaller. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 9 

7. Pears should be picked before fully ripe to prevent rotting 
at the core, or hard woody granules forming in them. 

8, The pears, when picked, should be wrapped and stored in a 
moderately cool, dark place to ripen ; but not in piles. 

c. Rules for picking* quinces. 

1. They should be gathered when they begin to turn yellow. 

2. They must be handled with great care. 

d. Rules for picking- peaches. 

1. Distant shipments — the peach must be picked while still firm, 
but should be fully grown and well colored. 

2. The greenness on the lighter side should be very dim. 

3. The peach must reach the market just as it is in condition 
to use. 

4. Local market — the peach may be allowed to begin to ripen 
on the tree. 

5. Early morning is a better time to pick peaches because the 
cooler the fruit is kept while in packing house and transit, 
the better condition it will be in when the destination is 
reached. 

e. Rules for picking- plums. 

1. Plums will bear picking when decidedly green. 

2. Local market — ^they should be allowed to hang as long as 
possible except for jelly making. 

3. Many ripen very nicely after being picked and keep for 
three or four weeks in moderately cool, dark places and come 
out ripe and juicy. 

4. For long distance shipping, peach plums need not be colored, 
but there must be a light yellow spot appearing. on one side 
or they will not color up when they ripen. 

f. Rules for picking- cherries. 

1. They are generally picked just before they ripen and the 
best test for ripeness is to eat a few. 

2. They should be handled with great care. 

3. The stems should be left on and only the stems touched with 
fingers. 

4. Use an 8-pound basket in picking, 

5. The bottom fruit in the basket should never be pressed too 
heavily. 

6. The fruit spurs should not be pulled off. 

g. Rules for picking apricots. 

1. See peaches. 

2. For long distance shipping, apricots need not be colored, but 
there must be a light yellow spot appearing on one side or 
they will not color up when they ripen. 

h. Rules for picking strawberries. 

1. Berries must be pink all over or three-fourths red. 

2. Berries should be picked riper in cool weather than warm 
weather. 

3. Berries should be picked with stems, breaking them off a 
fourth to one-half inch above fruit. 

4. Berries should be picked greener for shipping, than home 
market. 



10 MAJSFUAL OF HORTIOULTURE 

5. Berries must not be picked while there is moisture on the 
vines. 

6. Pickers must not hold several berries in their hands at the 
same time. 

i. Rules for picking" raspberries. 

1. Red raspberries are picked as soon as they begin to soften 
slightly. 

2. Black raspberries are picked as soon as they will part from 
the receptacle. 

3. Raspberries are picked and put into pint boxes, which are 
placed in hand carriers which contain six boxes and carried 
direct to packing house. 

j. Other rules. 

1. Blackberries and dewberries are usually picked when they 
are evenly colored. 

2. Gooseberries are picked while yet quite green. 

3. Currants are allowed to color but are picked before they are 
ripe. 

3. Picking receptacles. 

a. Baskets. 

b. Galvanized buckets of 12 to 14-quart size. 

c. Stout wire hook. 

4. Essential points in handling. 

a. Avoid bruising the fruit. 

b. Avoid breaking the skin of the fruit. 

c. Avoid sudden cooling of the fruit. 

d. Avoid leaving fruit in piles or letting stand in the sun in the 
orchard. 

e. Secure a good storage house at temperature from 30° to 35° F. 

5. Picking with stems off or on. 

Picked with stems on Picked with stems off 

Apples Pears Raspberries Peaches 

Plums Quinces Blueberries Apricots 

Cherries Grapes Juneberries Tomatoes 

Currants Gooseberries Blackberries 

Strawberries Persimmons 

6. Benefit with stems. 

a. Prevents the juice escaping. 

b. Prevents the moistening of the packages 

c. Checks the decay of fruits. 

d. Acts as packing material. 

e. Aids in looks. 

7. Conveniences for picking. 

a. Picking shears. 

b. Step-ladders with three legs. 

c. Low wagons. 

8. Managing pickers. 

a. Daybook system. 

b. Check system. 

c. Punch-card system. 



MAJSTJAL OF HORTICULTURE 11 

9. Questions. 

a. How should an apple be grasped to take it from stem? 

b. What effect on the fruit system to jerk the fruit off? 

c. Should there be more than one picking? 

d. What is a good picking receptacle ? 

e. Why is early morning the best time to pick fruit? 

10. References. 

a. Fruit Harvesting, Sorting, and Marketing, by Waugh. 

b. Fruit Growing by Bailey. 

c. Fruit Growing by Paddock and Whipple. 

d. Maryland Bulletins Nos. 144, 160, 159. 

e. Iowa Bulletin No. 114. 

f . Idaho Bulletin No. 70. 

g. Get rules from different Fruit Associations. 

GRADING. 

1. The general rule is to sort each variety into two or three grades, 
and two sizes to each grade. 

2. It takes more experience and better judgment for grading than 
picking or packing. 

3. The sorting and packing tables should be conveniently arranged to 
facilitate the work. 

4. Pickers should be required to empty the fruit carefully into apple 
boxes by hand, and should look for bruised and blemished fruit 
which should be put in piles under the shaded sides of the trees to 
be disposed of as soon as possible. 

5. The fruit so assorted may then be stored in the storing house for 
packing. 

6. The requirement of uniformity is the one chiefly to be considered in 
handling fruit. 

7. The different grades of winter apples. 
a. Extra fancy. 

1. Each specimen must be a well formed, fully matured apple, 
free from insect pests, worms, worm stings, scale, scab, sun 
scald, dry rot, water core, or other defects ; limb rubs, skin 
puncture, or other evidences of rough handling will be con- 
sidered defects. 

2. Solid red varieties. 

a. Like Spitzenberg, Winesap, Arkansas Black, Gano, Jona- 
than, Missouri Pippin, etc., must have 75 per cent red. 

3. Partially red or striped varieties. 

a. Like Ben Davis, Delicious, Rome Beauty, Baldwin, Wag- 
ner, Stayman Winesap, and other varieties of similar 
color, must be at least 50 per cent of good color. 

4. Red cheek or blush varieties. 

a. Like Red Cheek Pippin, Winter Banana, etc., must have a 
distinctly colored cheek. 

5. Green or yellow varieties. 

a. Like Grimes Golden, Yellow Newton, White Winter Pear- 
main, etc., must show a good bright color. 

6. No greater count than 200 will be accepted except sometimes 
Missouri Pippin and Winesap may be packed as small as 225. 



12 MANUAL OF HORTICULTUEE 

7, Boxes lined and apples wrapped. 

b. Fancy. 

1. This grade shall consist of well formed, fully matured apples, 
free from insect pests, worms, worm stings, scale, scab, sun 
scald, dry rot, water core, or other defects; limb rub, skin 
puncture, or other evidences of rough handling will be con- 
sidered defects. 

2. Solid red varieties. 

a. Same as extra fancy, must at least be 25 per cent (by 
some associations 33 1-3 per cent.) of good natural color. 

3. Partially red or striped varieties. 

a. Same as extra fancy, must be at least 10 per cent (some 
fruit associations 20 per cent.) of good red color. 

4. Eed cheek varieties. 

a. Physical qualities must be good; no requirements as to 
color. 

5. Green or yellow varieties. 

a. No requirements as to color. 

6. No greater count than 175 will be accepted ; except — 

a. Newton Pippins, Missouri Pippins and Winesaps may be 
packed up to 200 inclusive. 

7. Boxes lined and apples wrapped. 

c. C Grade. 

1. All merchantable apples not included in the Extra Fancy or 
Fancy grades will be accepted in this grade. 

2. Each apple to be free from worm holes, scale or other infec- 
tious diseases ; but no mis-shapen apples or limb rub, or other 
like defects will be accepted. 

3. No requirements as to color except the fruit must be clearly 
mature. 

4. No count greater than 163. 

8. The different grades of summer apples. 

a. Extra Fancy. 

1. The same as Extra Fancy grade of winter apples, except 
color is eliminated. 

2. All apples wrapped. 

b. Fancy. 

1. The same as Fancy and C grades of winter apples. 

2. Color is eliminated. 

3. All apples wrapped. 

9. Different grades of pears. 

a. Extra Fancy. 

1. This grade shall consist of pears not less than 2i/4 inches in 
diameter (except "Winter Nellis which shall not be less than 
1% inches). 

2. This grade shall be free from worms, scale, all bruises and 
defects, mis-shapen or limb rubs. 

3. Pears withoiit stems will not be accepted. 

b. Fancy. 

1. See Extra Fancy. 

2. This grade shall be free from worms, scale and bruises, but 
mis-shapen, limb rubs, or other defects will be accepted. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 13 

3. The stems or part of the stems must be on the pears. 

10. The grading- of peaches. 

a. The excellence of the pack depends ^pon uniform grading. 

b. No over-ripe, undersized, immature, bruised, mis-shapen, dis- 
eased, wormy, or defective fruit should be packed. 

e. Note : Over-ripe peaches may be packed for special purposes, 
d. Peaches less than two inches in diameter should not be packed 
for shipment. 

11. The grading of plums, prunes, and apricots. 

a. They should be free from worms, bruises, punctures, or other 
defects. 

12. The grading of cherries. 

a. They should be in perfect condition ; right degree of ripeness. 

b. There should be no stemless cherries. 

13. The grading of strawberries. 

a. No green, over-ripe, stemless, undersized, or mis-shapen berries 
should be packed. 

b. Varieties like the Hood River or Clark's Seedling should be 
pink all over and must be not less than 75 per cent red when 
picked. 

c. Varieties like Nick Ohmer should be red all over. 

d. The Glen Mary should be picked before it acquires the full red 
color all over, but not less than half of the berry should be well 
colored. 

e. Grades of strawberries. 

1. First or "A" grade. 

a. Berries of good size, well colored, firm and clean. 

b. Cups filled solidly, faced on top, no stems showing. 

e. Berries smaller than five across the cup should not be 
packed. 

2. Second or "B" grade. 

a. This grade includes unpacked, unfaced, or undersized ber- 
ries when well colored, firm, clean, and otherwise same as 
first grade. 

3. Third or "0" grade. 

a. This grade includes all merchantable berries excluded 
from the first and seisond grades. 

14. The grading" of raspberries. 

a. All broken, crushed or over-ripe berries should be thrown on 
the ground or put in a separate box for home or cannery use. 

b. Easpberries should be picked as soon as they will slip off the 
core without crumbling or mashing. 

c. Over-ripe berries must not be put into the cup; one over-ripe 
berry will cause mould in the cup ; one mouldy cup will destroy 
a crate ; a bad crate will spoil a carload. 

d. The Cuthbert Raspberry cannot be picked until it is all red, and 
should be picked before it turns dark; Antwerp Red Raspber- 
ries can be picked before entirely red, but do not pick them 
until half the berry is red and the balance pink, but do not pick 
with any part of the berry green. 

e. Pickers should use small carriers attached to the waist, and as 



14 MANUAL OF HORTIOULTURE 

quickly as the berry is removed from the bush, it must be put 
in the carrier and not held in the hand, 
f. Berries will lose their strength and be crushed if held in the 
hand. 
15. The grading of Evergreen blackberries. 

a. The unripe berries will turn red the day after they are picked, 
and are only fit for cannery purposes. 

b. Every berry should be deposited in the cup as quickly as picked. 

c. No berry moulds as fast as the Evergreen. 

d. Every broken seedpod means a mouldy berry. 

e. The berries must be picked directly into the cups, and not trans- 
ferred from one cup to another. 

f. Keep carriers and all berries out of the sun and dust. 

g. Evergreen berries must be picked every day, or at least every 
other day, so as to get them off the vines at the proper time. 

h. A ripe berry is much larger than an unripe berry and takes less 

to fill the cup. 
i. They should be taken off the vines as quickly as they become 

sweet. 
j. Cover the berries in the wagons to protect from sun and dust. 

PACKING. 

1. Packing is the classification of fruits into their proper sizes and 
the placing of the same size solidly into boxes in such a manner as 
to insure uniformity of appearance, neatness, and protection from 
bruising. 

2. Packing house. 

a. Composed of a packing room and store room. 

b. Center opening between the packing and the store rooms. 

c. Packing tables should be equipped with places for : 

1. Cardboard which is a thin piece of pasteboard 11x17% 
inches, used in top and bottom, inside of the lining paper. 

2. Lining paper, which is 18x26 inches. 

3. Wrapping paper. 

a. Size of paper 12x12 inches for 64 apples and larger. 

b. Size of paper 10x10 inches for 72 apples to 96 apples. 

c. Size of paper 9x9 inches for 100 apples to 175 apples. 

d. Size of paper 8x8 inches for 188 apples and smaller. 

3. Boxes for packing, 
a. Apples. 

1. Northwest Standard box. 

a. Size 1014x111/2x18 inches inside dimensions containing 
2173.5 cubic inches. 

2. Thickness of lumber in boxes. 

a. End boards should be at least % inch in thickness. 

b. Side boards should be % inch in thickness. 

c. Side boards should be of one piece. 

d. Top and bottom boards should be of two pieces, each 14 
inch thick. 

3. Two cleats each for top and bottom. 

4. Lining of box. 

a. It takes two sheets of lining paper for each box. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 15 

b. Lining the left side of the box. 

1. Take a sheet of lining paper and place it over the left 
side of the bos, letting the edge come just past the cen- 
ter of the bottom. 

2. Place the right hand flat on the inside bottom of the 
box and press hard enough to make an opening between 
the bottom and the side. 

3. Press the paper out a little way through this opening 
with the thumb and finger. 

4. This opening will close and catch a fold in the paper 
when the hand is removed. 

c. Lining the right side of the box. 

1. It is done in the same way as lining the left side, except 
the left hand is used instead of the right hand. 

2. The edges of the lining paper should lap a little in the 
bottom. 

d. The fold is needed in the lining paper to keep it from 
bursting when nailing up the box, which causes a bulge in 
the bottom of the box. 

e. The layer-board is onlj^- used when the apples are very ripe 
and repacked in the spring. 

f. Always pack in clean boxes. 

b. Pears. 

1. Size 81/2x111/2x18 inches inside dimensions. 

2. Thickness of lumber. 

a. The end boards should be % inch thick. 

b. The top and bottom boards should be ^4 i^ch. thick. 

c. The sides should be % inch thick. 

c. Peaches. 

1. Size 4, 4^2, or 5xll%xl8 inches inside dimensions. 

2. Thickness of lumber. 

a. The end boards should be 11/16 inch thick. 

b. The top, side and bottom boards should be i/^ inch in 
thickness. 

d. Prunes. 

1. Small wood-veneer boxes, each 8 inches square and 4 inches 
deep. 

2. Size of crate 4^/2x16x17% inches, except for extreme sizes, 
then increase or diminish depth of pack only. 

3. Plums and apricots, same as prunes. 

e. Cherries. 

1. Size of crate 214^9x19% inches inside dimensions. 

2. The box is generally divided into two equal parts. 
Wrapping fruits. 

a. Apples. 

1. Place the wrapping paper in the left hand so that the center 
of the paper is over the palm of the hand. 

2. Pick up the apple with the right hand and place it into the 
center of the wrapping paper. 

3. The apple should be tossed or slightly thrown into place in 
order to jerk up the edges of the paper, making it easier to 
fold around the apple. 



16 MANUAL OF HORTICULTUEE 

4. The stem of the apple should be towards the lower right- 
hand corner of the paper. 

5. Grasp the loose edges of the paper next to the packer with 
the right hand, turning it to the right enough to fold the 
paper over the apple. 

6. With the fingers of the left hand fold the loose parts of the 
paper farthest from the packer, giving a slight twist toward 
the left. 

7. Each apple must be completely covered with paper drawn 
down smoothly. 

8. The apple is ready to put into the box when properly 
wrapped. 

b. Pears. 

1. Place the paper diagonally in the left hand. 

2. Pick up the pear with the right hand and slightly throw it 
into center of paper with stem from the packer. 

3. The right hand gathers the lower corners up over the fruit 
and at the same time giving it a twist which wraps the re- 
mainder of the paper around the neck forming a cone-shaped 
package. 

4. Show method. 

a. Place the pear in the corner of the paper nearest to packer. 

b. Grasp the corner and pear with the fingers of the right 
hand, giving the pear a twist to the right. 

c. This forms a perfect cone. 

5. The bottom of the paper is folded under the fruit. 

6. Use the proper size paper for the size fruit. 

c. Peaches. 

1. See apples. 

5. Size of fruits. 

a. Apples. 

1. The sizes are classified into what are called tiers. 

2. The size of the apple is determined by its diameter from 
cheek to cheek at the widest point, never from stem to blos- 
som end. 

3. Grouped by tiers. 

a. 3 -tier means the sizes from 36 to 56 inclusive. 

b. 31/2-tier means the sizes from 64 to 88 inclusive. 

c. 4 -tier means the sizes from 96 to 125 inclusive. 

d. 4V2-tier means the sizes from 138 to 175 inclusive. 

e. 5 -tier means the sizes from 188 to 225 inclusive. 

b. Pears. 

1. Grouped by tiers. 

a. 4-tier means the sizes from 40 to 120 inclusive. 

b. 5-tier means the sizes from 120 to 245 inclusive. 

c. Peaches. 

1. Sizes in packs from 40 to 96 inclusive. 

6. Placing fruit in boxes, 
a. Apples. 

1. General Rule : "Without moving the apple from the left hand 
after it is properly wrapped, place it in the box, stem toward 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 17 

the end of the bos next to the packer, laying the apples on 
the fold of paper and on its cheek. 

2. Remember that all apples in the same box should be of the 
same size and packed in the same manner. 

3. Never turn the stem of one apple to the cheek of another 
apple. 

4. Very flat apples may be tilted to keep the pack from coming 
too high at the ends. 

b. Pears. 

1. Begin each pack by placing the blossom end of the pear 
against the end of the box next to the packer. 

2. Place the pears in the second row into the spaces in the first 
row, with stem ends toward the packer. 

3. This will throw the blossom end of the pears to the ends of 
the boxes. 

c. Peaches. 

1. See apples. 

2. Packed with stem ends down in both layers. 

3. The peaches should be pressed together tightly enough to 
give a slight bulge to the sides of the box. 

4. Place the larger peaches nearer the center of the box to give 
a slight bulge to top and bottom. 

d. Prunes. 

1. The way in which the prunes are packed depends on the size. 

2. The prunes are best packed with the diagonal pack when 
they are large enough. 

3. The prunes should fill the box and stand high enough to 
touch the lid. 

4. Plums and apricots are similar to the prunes. 

e. Cherries. 

1. The cherries are packed double-faced in bottom of box ; then 
the box filled. 

2. No stems should be shown on top ; no stemless cherries should 
be packed. 

3. Cherries should be packed with flat or creased side against 
the boards. 

4. Make neat square packs. 

5. Nail on top and turn the box over and mark the packed side 
as top. 

f. Strawberries. 

1. The packers should empty the boxes brought in by the pick- 
ers and refill them snugly, but without bruising the berries, 
so that there will be no settling to destroy the appearance of 
the pack. 

2. The top of the box should be faced with 16, 20 or 25 berries, 
all of uniform size and color. 

3. The boxes should be filled so that the top layer will show 
three-eighths of an inch above the top of the box. 

4. However, care must be exercised so that berries do not ex- 
tend over the edge of the box, or they will be cut when the 
cover is nailed on the crate causing discoloration of boxes 
and hastening decay of berries. 



18 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



g 



5. Berries brought from the field should be emptied on screens 
in order to allow the sand and dust to fall away from the 
fruit. 

Raspberries. 

1. See picking. 
h. Blackberries. 

1. See picking. 

Diagonal packs. 
a. Apples. 

1. The apples are so placed that the rows will 
not run in a straight line from side to side 
across the bottom of the box. 

2. Name of diagonal packs, 
a. Two-one pack which is a three layer pack. 

1. The way to start a two-one pack. 






OH 





Fig-. 8. — Shows how to start a two-one pack. 



to 



b. 



c. 



Place an apple in each corner of the box next 
packer, as 1 and 2 of cut No. 1. 
Place an apple in the pocket formed by 1 and 2 ; as, 
3 of cut No. 1. 

Continue to place apples in the pockets thus formed 
until the first layer is completed, 
d. Make all the pockets even. 

2. Placing the second layer. 

a. The first apple of the second layer is placed in the 
pocket formed by 1, 2 and 3 of cut No. 1. 

b. Continue to place apples of the second layer in the 
pockets of the first layer, until completed. 

3. Placing the third layer. 

a. The third layer is laid like the first layer. 

4. 3-tier counts of the two-one pack, 
a. Tabulated. 



No. in Box No. in Rows No. of Layers No. of Cut 



Remarks 



41 


5-4 


3 


2 . 


Large apples. 


45 


5-5 


3 


3 


Large apples. 


50 


6-5 


3 


4 


Very flat apples. 


54 


6-6 


3 


5 


Very flat apples. 



"When the apples are small enough to make a straight 
row across the end of the box, they are packed into a 
two-two pack. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



19 



b. Two-two pack which is a four-layer pack. 
1. The way to start a two-two pack. 

a. Place an apple 
in the right- 
hand corner of 
box, as 1 of cut 
No. 6. 

b. Place second 
apple midway 
between the 
first apple and 
side of the box, 
as 2 of cut No. 

6. 



%3 









Q 



Pig-. 
pack. 



9.- — Shows how to start a two-two 



c. Place two apples in the two pockets formed by the 
first two apples, as 3 and 4, of cut No. 6. 

d. Place the next two apples ; as 5 and 6 of cut No. 6. 

6. Continue as 7, 8, 9, 10 until first layer is completed. 

2. Placing the second layer. 

a. Place first apple in the left-hand corner between 2 
and 4 of cut No. 6, 

b. Place second apple in the pocket of 1, 2 and 3 of cut 
No. 6. ____________ 

c. Place the p-Vv^-VVv^ 

second layer 
on the first 
layer and 
show how 
the apples 
of the sec- 
ond layer fit 
in the pock- 
ets of the 
first layer. 

3. Place the third 

layer on the 

second and the fourth layer on the third layer, ex- 
plain, 
a. If the first layer is started in the right-hand corner, 
the second layer would be started in the left-hand 
corner. 

4. The first and third layers ; second and fourth layers of 
a two-two pack are the same — Figures 10 and 11. 

5. 3-tier counts of the two-two pack, 
a. Tabulated. 




Second and Fourth Layers 

Fig. 11. Two-two 
paclc, 96. 



No. in Box No. In Rows No. of Layers Not of Cut 



Remarks 



48 
56 



3-3 
4-3 



Long apples. 
Medium long apples. 



6. 31/^-tier counts of the two-two pack. 



20 



MANUAL OF HORTICIILTURE 







PnQ 

ogog 







Fig. 12. — Shows the 3%-tier counts of the two-two 

a. Tabulated. 



pack. 



No. in Box 


No. in Rows 


No. of Layers 


Nov of Cut 


Remarks 


64 


4-4 


4 


9 




72 


5-4 


4 


10 




80 


5-5 


4 


11 




88 


6-5 


4 


12 





7. 4-tier counts of the two-two pack. 




RoPo 
WdAo 

pgfi 



I /T - //? 



OHOh 

qHoH 

qHoH 



Fig. 13. — Shows 4-tier counts of tlie two-two pack. 

a. Tabulated. 



No. in Box 


No. in Rows 


No. of Layers 


Nd. of Cut 


Remarks 


96 


6-6 


4 


13 




104 


7-6 


4 


14 


Flat apples. 


112 


7-7 


4 


15 


Very flat apples. 


120 


8-7 


4 


16 


Very flat apples. 



c. 



8. When the apples are small enough to make a straight 
row across the end of the box, they are packed into a 
three-two pack. 

Three-two pack which is a five layer pack. 

1. The way to start a three-two pack, 
a. Place an ap- 



ple in each 
corner o f 
the box next 
to the pack- 
er, as 1 and 
2 of cut No. 
17. 

Place an ap- 
ple in the 
center be- 








ffiCK 

b 




Fig. 
pack. 



14.- — Shows how to start a three-two 



MAJSnjAL OF HORTICULTURE 



21 



tween the first two, as 3 of cut 
No. 17. 
c. Continue to place the apples, as 
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, of cut No. 17 until 
the first layer is completed. 

2. Placing of the second layer, Fig. 15. 

a. The first apple is placed in pock- 
et formed by 1, 3 and 4 of cut 
No. 17. 

b. The second apple is placed in 
pocket formed by 2, 3 and 5 of 

cut No. 17. 

c. Continue placing the apples of second layer in the 
pockets of the first layer until completed. 

3. The third layer is placed like the first layer ; the fourth 
like the second; the fifth like the first layer. 

4. 4-tier counts of the three-two pack, 
a. Tabulated. 




Fig-. 15, Thres-two 
pack, 188. 



No. in Box No. in Rows No. of Layers Noi. of Cut 



Rejnarks 



113 

125 



5-4 
5-5 



18 
19 



5. 4%-tier counts of the three-two pack. 




oRoPq 

QVrP 

dfioxQ 
gc9d 



z/ - /so 



sRoHc 

m 



ZX - /6^ 




Fig. 16. — Shows the 4%-tier counts of the three-two pack. 

a. Tabulated. 



No. in Box 


No. 


in Rows 


No. 


of Layers 


Noi 


of Cut 


Remarks 


138 




6-5 






5 




20 




150 




6-6 






5 




21 




163 




7-6 






5 




22 




175 




7-7 






5 


1 


23 


Packed also in 5-tier 



7. The 5-tier counts of the three-two pack. 





oSqWo 

qUqM 



,Or 



o 



Dycya 



Fig. 17. — Shows the 5-tier counts of three-two pack. 



22 



MANUAL OF HORTIOULTURE 



a. Tabulated. 



No. in Box 


No. in Rows 


No. of Layers 


No. of Cut 


Remarks 


188 
200 
213 
225 


8-7 
8-8 
9-8 
9-9 


5 
5 
5 
5 


24 
25 
26 

27 


Very flat apples 
Very flat apples 
Very flat apples 



9. "When the apples are small enough to make a straight 
row across the end of the box, they are packed into a 
three-three pack. 

d. Three-three pack which is a six layer pack. 
1. The way to start a three-three pack, 
a. Place the 



^@% 






W 



'^m 




p^ 



-go - 2/e 



first apple in 
the right 
hand corner 
of the box 
next to the 
packer; as 1 
of cut No. 
28. 
b. Place the 

^f^,^^^ apple p.g IS.— Shows how to start a three-three 

1/3 of the pack. 

remaining distance ; as 2 of cut No. 28. 
3. Place the third apple % of the remaining distance; 
as 3 of cut No. 28. 

d. Place the three apples in the pockets formed in the 
first row ; as 4, 5, 6 of cut No. 28. 

e. Continue in the same manner until the first layer is 
completed. 

2. Place the apples of the second layer in the pockets of 
the first layer. 

3. If the first layer begins in the right-hand corner, the 
second layer should begin in the left-hand corner, etc. 

4. 5-tier counts of the three-three pack, 
a. Tabulated. 



No. in Box No. in Rows No. of Layers Noi. of Cut 



Remarks 



198 
216 


6-5 
6-6 


6 1 29 
6 I 30 


Long apples. 


5. Very rare diagonal pack. 


No. in Box 


,..r . „ ^^ ^ T Name of 
No. m Rows No. of Layers Pack 


Remarks 


36 
100 


4-4 
4-4 


3 2-1 
5 3-2 


Very large apples. 
Very Iv'^ng apples. 



b. Pears. 

1. Names of diagonal packs. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



23 



a. Three-two pack which is a four layer pack and called 4- 
tier pack. 
1. See apple. 





Fig-. 19. — Shows the way to start a three- 
two pack (a); three-three pack (b); four- 
three pack (c). 




Place the pears 
as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
6, 1, 8, 9 of cut 
A in Fig 19. 

3. Place blossom 
ends of 1, 2 
and 3 against 
end of box. 

4. Reverse t h e 
pears by plac- 
ing the stem 
ends toward 
the packer. 

5. Placing the 
second layer. 

a. Place the 
pears of sec- 
ond layer in 
the pockets 
of the first 
layer. 

b. Place blos- 
som ends of 
the first row 
f second 
layer to end 
of box then 
reverse and place stem ends toward the packer, 

6. The third layer is laid like the first ; fourth layer is laid 
like the second. 

7. 4-tier counts of the three-two pack, 
a. Tabulate. 




Fig-. 20.— Shows 
three-two pack. 



the 4-tier counts of the 



No. in Box 


No. in Rows 


No. of Layers 


No. of Cut 


Remarks 


70 


4-3 


4 


1 




80 


4-4 


4 


2 




90 


5-4 


4 


3 




100 


• 5-5 


4 


4 




110 


5-6 


4 


5 




120 


Q-Q 


4 


6 





8. "When the pears are small enough to make a straight 
row across the end of the box, they are packed into a 
three-three pack. 



24 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



b. Three-three pack which is a 5 layer pack and called 5-tier 
pack. 

1. Place the pears as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 of 
cut B in Fig. 18. 

2. Place other layers, 
a. See 3-2 pack. 

3. 4-tier counts of the three-three pack. 




1 


v 

V 


V 


^ 


i 


V/ 

V 


M 


)V 


w 


-- ,1 - 'S-o 1 



Fig. 21. — Shows the 5-tier counts of the three-three pack. 

a. Tabulate. 



No. in Box 


No. in Rows 


No. of Layers 


No. of Cut 


Remarks 


120 


4-4 


5 


7 




135 


5-4 


5 


8 




150 


5-5 


5 


9 




165 


6-5 


5 


10 




180 


6-6 


5 


11 





5. When the pears are small enough to make a straight 
row across the end of the box, they are packed into the 
four-three pack and called a five-tier pack. 

Four-three pack which is a five layer pack. 

1. Place the pears as 1, 2, 3, etc., of cut C in Fig. 19. 

2. Place other layers, 
a. See 3-2 pack. 

3. 5-tier counts of the four-three pack. 




Fig. 22.— Shows the counts of the four-three pack. 

a. Tabulated. 



No. in Box 


No. in Rows 


No. of Layers 


Noi. of Cut 


Remarks 


193 


6-5 


5 


12 




210 


6-6 


5 


13 




228 


7-6 


5 


14 




245 


7-7 


5 


15 





MANUAL, OF HORTICULTURE 



25 



e. Peach. 



Diagonal pack of peaches. 

a. There are only two layers in a box of peaches. 

b. Peaches less than two inches should not be packed. 

c. Pack the stem ends down in both layers. 

d. The Elbertas should not be less than 2^/4 inches in diam- 
eter. 

e. The peaches in a box should not vary more than one-eighth 
of an inch in diameter. 

f. All grades must be carefully wrapped in suitable paper. 

g. Three-two pack which is a two-layer pack. 

1. Pack peaches between 2i/^ and 3 inches in diameter in 
this pack, in 4%-inch boxes. 

2. Start the three-two pack of peaches the same as a three- 
two pack of apples. 

3. Place the peaches in second layer in the spaces between 
the peaches in the first layer. 

4. The counts of the three-two pack, 
a. Tabulated. 



No. in Box No. in Rows No. of Layers 



Remarks 



40 


4-4 


2 




45 


5-4 


2 




50 


5-5 


2 




55 


6-5 


2 




60 


6-6 


2 




65 


7-6 


2 




70 


7-7 


2 




75 


8-7 


2 





Three-three pack which is a two layer pack. 

1. Pack peaches between 2 and 2% inches in diameter in 
this pack, in 4-inch and 4%-inch boxes. 

2. Start the three-three pack of peaches, the same as a 
three-three pack of apples. 

3. Place the peaches in second layer in the spaces between 
the peaches in the first layer. 

4. The counts of the three-three pack, 
a. Tabulated. 



No. in Box 


No. in Rows 


No. of Layers 


Remarks 


78 


7-6 


2 




84 


7-7 


2 




90 


8-7 


2 




96 


8-8 


2 





Prunes, plums and apricots. 

1. Tabulated. 



Name of 
Pack 



No. in Rows No. of Layers 



Remarks 



3-2 


3-4 


2 Diagonal pack. 


3-2 


• 3-3 


2 Diagonal pack. 




4-4 


2 or 3 1 Square pack. 




5-5 


3 1 Square pack. 




5-6 


3 I Square pack. 




6-6 


3 I Square pack. 



26 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

e. Cherries. 

1. 9-row, 10-row, 11-row, 12-row, solid pack. 

2. They are packed in a square pack. 

3. They are packed double-face in the bottom of the box. 

4. The flat or creased side of the cherry rests against the boards. 

5. Then the cherries are poured into the remaining space. 

6. After the top is nailed on, the pack is turned over and marked. 

8. Making the bulge. 

a. Apple. 

1. The bulge is best obtained by packing the apples a little 
closer in the center of the box than at the ends. 

2. When the apples are packed closer in the center than the 
ends, the pockets between the center apples are smaller and 
the apples of the second layer will not go so deep in the pock- 
ets of the first layer and the center is built up higher. 

3. When the ends are left a little more loose than the center, 
the apples of the second layer drop further into the pockets 
of the first layer and do not build up so high. 

4. Alternating the laying of apples at the end. 

a. It is necessary when apples are very flat, like the Wagner. 

b. One or two apples at ends of each layer are placed flat. 

c. The stem or blossom ends are turned to the top or bottom 
of the box. 

d. It is easy to determine what apples are to be turned when 
the first layer is almost completed. 

e. If it is a four layer pack, turn the apples on layers Nos. 

1 and 3 on end of layer farthest from packer, and on Nos. 

2 and 4 on end nearest the packer. 

f . By alternating, the ends are kept lower, no space left, nicer 
and closer pack, less liable to bruise the cheeks of end 
fruit when cover is put on. 

5. The packer will soon learn by practice how tight to pack the 
center and how loose to pack the ends. 

6. When the box is finished the end apples should be very little 
above the head of the box, and the center apples should be 
iy2 to 2 inches higher than the end apples. 

7. This will give from y2 to ^-inch bulge on both top and bot- 
tom, when nailed. 

8. Do not select large apples for the center as they will make 
larger pockets and the next layer will drop down deeper and 
nothing is gained toward making the bulge. 

9. The slight degree irregular apples should be packed at the 
ends in order to keep the apples low at the end. 

b. Pear. 

1. The center pears should be from 2% to 3 inches higher than 
the end pears. 

2. Pears packed green will have a big shrinkage which would 
cause the pears in a flat pack to loosen. 

3. Do not pack the first layer too tight, if you do you are sure 
to make too big a bulge. 

4. The end pears should be pressed in toward the center of the 
box in order to keep the center higher than the ends. 



MAJSTUAL OF HORTICULTUKE 27 

9. Selection. 

a. An attractive box is one made up of fruit of the same size for 
each box. 

b. A fruit of the right size for the box will go in one place just as 
well as another. 

c. The proper alignment and uniformity is based on nearly the 
same size fruit for the box. 

d. See grading. 

10. Marking boxes. 

a. When packed, the number of fruit, the grade and the variety 
should be stamped on the end of the box. 

b. The grower's name and address are required to be placed on 
the box. 

c. A neat label adds to the appearance of the package. 

11. Nailing" press, 

a. The best nailing press is one which presses only on the ends of 
the lid and holds the cleats and top firmly in place until nailed. 

b. There should be places on the press for nails, cleats, tops and 
rubber stamps. 

c. After the boxes are nailed up, they should always be laid on the 
sides, as the sides are straight and the fruit is not bruised. 

12. References. 

a. See picking. 

THE RESPIRATION OF APPLES, 

1. All living cells, whether a part of animal matter or vegetable 
matter, must have oxygen to keep them alive and they give up 
carbon dioxide and water as a result of the action of the oxygen 
on some of their contents. 

2. Parts of plants when cut off from, the main stem do not die at 
once, and must continue to breathe. 

3. This is true, whether the severed part is a leafy branch, a fruit, 
or a root; but some parts live much longer after removal than 
others, and the apple continues to breathe for many weeks after 
it has been picked from the tree. 

4. The chief products of respiration are the same in plants as in ani- 
mals, namely, carbon dioxide (commonly called carbonic acid) 
and water. 

5. Respiration, whether in animals or in plants, causes a destruction 
of matter in the cells much like the destruction of wood in a 
stove, and the rate at which this destruction goes on can be meas- 
ured by determining the amount of carbonic acid that is breathed 
out in a given length of time. 

6. In animals, under usual conditions, the food which they eat makes 
good the losses produced by respiration. 

7. An animal, however, may live without food for some time, during 
which period it still breathes in oxygen and breathes out carbon 
dioxide and water, but it steadily loses weiacht and grows thin in 
flesh because there is a steady destruction of cell material with no 
food to replace it. 

8. Fruit, after having been picked from the tree, is in the condition 
of the starving animal. 



28 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

9. Its cells still keep up respiration with nothing in the way of food 
to make good the losses produced by the action. 

10. Apples and other fruits have no body heat to maintain, the 
breathing process is not so active as in animals, and they may 
last months after being picked from the tree. 

11. There is a steady, continuous, loss in weight, although the fruit 
is sound and firm. 

12. Fancy apples intended for long keeping in cold storage should be 
cooled as soon as possible and kept cold. 

13. The breathing process is at the expense of cell contents and must 
weaken the keeping qualities as it goes on. 

14. This destructive action is from four to six times as fast out of 
cold storage as inside it. 

15. The respiration is not stopped in cold storage, but simply slowed. 

16. Apples cannot be kept indefinitely, but keep about twice as long 
in cold storage as in a cool cellar. 

Exercise 1. 

1. Object: To show the respiration of apples. 

2. Method: 

a. Place one or more apples in a jar and cover it tightly. 

b. In a few hours a dewy film will cover the inner surface of 
the jar, that in time will collect into drops which will trickle 
to the bottom. 

c. On opening the jar, a little clear lime water may be poured 
into it, without touching the fruit. 

d. The lime water will be seen to turn milky. 

e. Just as it will if an animal 's breath is forced through it. 

Exercise 2. 

1. Object : To show that apples take up oxygen from the air. 

2. Method: 

a. In a large basin partially filled with water set a small sup- 
port on which is placed an apple and a small open dish con- 
taining a solution of caustic soda or potash. 

b. The apple should not touch the water or the caustic solution. 

c. Cover the support and its contents by a large bell glass or 
wide jar with its mouth wholly in the water. 

d. Now as the apple breathes in the oxygen in the air, and 
breathes out carbonic acid gas, the latter will be absorbed by 
the caustic solution, while the water will rise in the jar to 
fill the space made vacant by the removal of the oxygen. 

e. Finally the water will fill about one-fifth of the air space 
originally present, and remain stationary because the oxy- 
gen is all used. 

STORAGE OF FRUIT. 

1, Requirements. 

a. Quality of fruit. 

1. It does not pay to store anything but first grade fruit. 

2. Shrinkage and loss are not checked but retarded in storage. 

b. Handling of fruit. 



MAJSrUAJ^ OF HORTICULTURE 29 

li Careful picking, sorting and packing. 
'2. Subsequent handling after storing. 

3. Wrapping in paper serves to reduce the bruising from poor 
packing and in transportation. 

2. Delaying- storage. 

a. Causes deterioration of large quantities of fruit. 

b. Extent of the loss depends on : 

1. Temperature during delay. 

2. Whether put in piles in orchard or in tight building where 
the warm air can pass off readily. 

3. Fungus diseases readily start while fruit is warm and can 
not be checked when put in cold storage. 

c. Any treatment that checks the ripening after picking prolongs 
the marketing period. 

3. Problems of storage. 

a. The ability to hold part of the crop until the perishable surplus 
has been disposed of, means higher prices, easier sales, and bet- 
ter accommodations. 

b. Storage system will check over-stocking the market. 

c. The economical problem is not to secure high prices for small 
quantity, but an average price for large quantity. 

d. Essential points. 

1. What varieties are best suited for storage? 

2. What conditions must be provided to secure the best and 
most economical management of stored fruit? 

3. Some varieties in storage vary in behavior, scalding, shrink- 
ing, losing flavor, becoming dull colored and unattractive. 

4. Other varieties come out of storage smooth, bright, fra- 
grant and crisp. 

5. Early ripening varieties are held one or two degrees higher, 
but may be held at lower temperature for longer time, but 
decay very rapidly when taken from storage. 

4. Handling the fruit in storage. 

a. Placing on shelves. 

b. Placing in shallow bins. 

c. Amount put in room at one time. 

d. Method now used is to store fruit in packages. 

e. The amount of fresh, warm fruit put into a storage room at 
once should not be excessive 

f. It is better to fill a room slowly and allow time for each lot to 
cool. 

5. Temperature. 

a. Temperature varies from 32° to 34° F. for apples. 

b. Long keeping varieties that go down slowly are held at a lower 
temperature than 32° F. 

e. Early ripening varieties that go down quickly are held one or 
two degrees higher. 

d. Some fruit cannot be held as low as 32° since it freezes at a 
higher temperature. 

e. Very large fruit does not keep as well as smaller fruit of the 
same variety. 



30 



]VlAJSrUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



f. Approximate temperatiire ; 



Name. 


1 Summer 


Winter 


General 


Apples 


1 36-42 


32-35 
33-38 




Pears 


1 3fi-44 




Peaches | 


36-38 


Plums 1 




36-42 


Cherries | 




38-40 


Grapes 




32-36 


Strawberries | 




36-44 


Potatoes 1 




36-40 


Onions | 




34-38 


Cabbage | | 


34-36 


Turnips | | 


34-40 







6. Influence of cold storage on the decay of apples. 

a. Chemical changes in apples during storage. 

1. The apple is a living organism when picked from the tree and 
remains so after X)icldng for days, weeks, and even months, 
under favorable conditions. 

2. This life is maintained at the expense of its own constitu- 
ents, and the apple is really undergoing a slow form of disso- 
lution until deca}^ attacks and destroys it, leaving only the 
tibrous portions of its structure and the seeds. 

3. The process of dissolution is a continuous one, and is mani- 
fested by the respiratory action, during which water and car- 
bon dioxide are exhaled. 

4. At the same time there are transformation and destruction of 
the constituents of the fruit, in order to produce these pro- 
ducts of respiration. 

5. These changes have been shown to be mainly a transforma- 
tion of starch into sugar cane in the first stage after picking, 
next change of the cane sugar into invert sugar, and finally 
a slow decrease in the total quantity of sugars. 

6. At the same time, the acid in the fruit gradually grows less 
in amount, there being most in the unripe fruit. 

b. Storage in cellars. 

1. One of the chief sources of trouble arises from an imperfect 
understanding of the principles involved in keeping fruit and 
in the management of the cellar. 

2. The prevalent notion was that the cellar is for the purpose of 
keeping cold air out and to protect the contents of the cellar 
against freezing. 

3. The conditions are to keep cold air in, and by careful atten- 
tion to the ventilation during cool weather and of nights to 
cool the interior of the cellar and its contents and maintain 
as far as possible a uniformity in the inside temperature. 

4. This uniformity has more to do with keeping apples success- 
fully than the actual temperature itself. 

Once chilled, any subsequent rise in temperature causes the 
fruit to sweat from the deposit of moisture from the air on 
the cool surface of the fruit, hence a rise in temperature is 
more to be guarded against than the contrarv- 



5. 



JNIANUAL OF HORTICULTUEE 31 

r 

_6. In ordinary storage it is almost impossible to maintain whoUv 
uniform temperature, the thing then to do is to avoid sudden 
changes. 

7. A cool air, free from excessive dampness, uniform temper- 
ature, and darkness, are the conditions favorable to the 
keeping of fruit in ordinary storage. 

8. A well insulated door and a well insulated vestibule entrance 
to the cellar make it much easier to prevent sudden changes 
and contributes to prolong the period through which fruit 
may be kept in sound condition. 

9. It is desirable also to enter the cellar as little as possible 
except when the outside temperature is lower than the 
within. 

10. Apples which are allowed to mellow on the tree or after they 
are gathered, have their life period greatly shortened. 

11. The ideal stage is when the fruit is full grown, but some days 
before it would begin to show signs of mellowness. 

12. Other points to be observed formerly are the selections of 
late maturing, good keeping varieties, and gathering the 
fruit in cold weather or late in the day when it can stand 
open all night to become chilled before going into the cellar. 

13. The location of the cellar on a slope or hillside to the north, 
with openings up and down the hill, favors thorough ventila- 
tion during the cool nights. 

14. By opening the cellar early in the night in cold weather and 
closing the doors before sunrise, the cellar is cooled and the 
cool air is kept caged in. 

15. The essential idea is in keeping the cool air in rather than 
keeping out the warm air, or protection against freezing and 
maintaining as equable temperature as possible by careful 
attention to ventilation. 

16. Fruit does not keep in cold storage satisfactorily unless it is 
carefully and properly handled by the grower before send- 
ing it to the storage room. 

. Systems of storage. 

1. Mechanical refrigeration. 

a. The expense of installing and maintaining a plant places 
mechanical refrigeration out of reach of the fruit grower 
and makes it a business by itself. 

b. The mechanical refrigeration furnishes the ideal cold 
storage, gives the best control of temperature and results. 

c. The mechanical refrigeration is cooled by machinery and 
costs less when large quantities are handled. 

d. Fruit grower can rent space in mechanical refrigeration 
at less expense than to have a plant. 

e. What the grower cares to know is "Is this method of 
storage successful?" and "What does it cost?" 

2. Ice refrig-eration. 

a. The use of ice for cooling a fruit storage room is often 
practicable on farms. 

b. The difficulty is that the ice has to be carried all summer 
as it is needed in late fall. 



32 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

c. The usual method is to build an ice refrigeration plant. 

1. Place the ice above the storage room. 

2. The cool air should flow from the ice room into the 
fruit room and the warm air carried off through flues 
or shafts. 

3. The cool air is best allowed to flow down at the sides 
of the building behind guides, which bring it near to 
the floor, in which case the warm air exit is placed in 
the center of the room and opens near the ceiling. 

4. The compartments consist of a refrigerator room, a 
cooling room, and a small entrance room. 

5. The floor should be laid tight, and provided with good 
drainage. 

6. Another method is to arrange around the sides of the 
storage room a series of vertical pipes, which are set in 
wooden troughs and terminate in a board trough in the 
ice chamber above. 

3. Cooling' by ventilation. 

i.. The most economical method of storage for the farm use 
and for ordinary fruit growers is one that depends on 
ventilation for the regulation of the temperature. 

b. The requirements. 

1. Thorough insulation against outside changes of temper- 
ature. 

2. Adequate ventilation. 

3. Careful and constant attention when fruit is put in and 
before. 

4. Protection from frost. 

0. Air moist enough to prevent evaporation. 

4. Building a storage house, 

a. Use 2x4 studdings. 

b. The outside wall. 

1. Layer of 1-inch board. 

2. Layer of building paper. 

3. Finished with well matched siding. 

c. The inside wall. 

1. Layer of 1-inch board. 

2. Two layers of building paper. 

3. Layer of well matched ceiling. 

4. Heavily painted. , 

d. The ventilating system consists of an intake for cold air 
and an outlet for warm air. 

e. The intake should be beneath the floor and the cold air 
brought up through the registers. 

f. The warm air exit must be placed in the upper part of the 
room. 

g. Study plans of a good storage house. 

h. Make a drawing of a good storage house. 

i. Make out the specifications of a good storage house. 

j. Figure out the cost of a good storage house. 

7. Questions. . . » ., „ 

a. "What effect have soils on the color and ripening of fruits? 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUIM': 33 

b. What effect has dry weather on keeping? 

c. What effect has wet weather on keeping? 

d. What kind of fruit should be stored ? 

e. What influence has color on the keeping of fruit? 

FRUIT MARKET. 

It is important that the fruit market and its requirements are 
known by those who expect to grow fruit for sale. 
If one knows where the fruit is going and what is to be expected, 
better preparation can be made to meet the needs of the consumer. 
Two markets. 

a. First — the wholesale, general or indirect market. 

b. Second — the retail, special or direct market. 

c. Quantity. 

1. The first handles fruit in large quantities. 

2. The second handles fruit in small quantities. 

d. Market problems. 

1. Growing" fruit. 

a. The proper kind and quality must be the first requisite. 

b. The grower must know how to grow the best quality of 
fruit. 

c. The grower must know when to harvest the different crops 
of fruit, in order to put them on the market in the best 
condition. 

d. The grower must know how to grow the crops at the least 
expense. 

2. Preparing the fruit for market. 

a. See picking, grading, packing and storage. 

b. The grower must know how to prepare different kinds of 
fruit for market in order to bring the best prices. 

3. Transportation. 

a. No other one condition has more to do to determine the 
kind of fruit, localization and profit, than transportation. 

b. Facilities and rates are of great importance. 

4. Different ways of selling". 

a. Individual market. 

1. Each grower may look up his market some weeks in ad- 
vance of the market season. 

2. The grower may definitely arrange with the different 
local dealers to sell a certain amount of fruit, then the 
dealers can inform their customers and find a sale for 
the given amount. 

3. Individual markets are an annual enterprise which 
must be renewed each year. 

b. Commission men. 

1. Explain how commission men handle fruit for the 
grower. 

2. The grower must produce first-class fruits uniformly 
and honestly graded and packed and delivered to the 
commission men in sound and attractive condition. 

3. The commission man should find the best market and 
make honest returns to the grower. 



34 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

4. Suggestive points. 

a. Stick to one man. 

b. Ship the same varieties. 

e. Grade and pack with the most rigid honesty, 
d. Follow the advice of the commission man in prepar- 
ing fruit for market. 

c. The relation between the fruit grower and commission 
man has created two ways of retreat for the fruit grower. 

1. Individual markets. 

2. Co-operative markets or associations. 

d. Favorable points for an association. 

1. Better distribution of the fruit. 

2. Special salesmen to handle the fruit. 

3. Economy. 

a. Better storage for fruit. 

b. Better and cheaper labor. 

c. Selling supplies to growers. 

4. Transportation. 

5. Better and more uniform grading and packing. 

6. Command of markets. 

7. Restriction of outputs. 

e. Unfavorable points for associations. 

1. Distrust of the grower. 

2. Grower wants to pay low wages to managers. 

3. Irregularity in grading the different grower's fruit. 

f. Conditions affecting market supply. 

1. Production ; whether over-production or shortage. 

2. Transportation facilities. 

3. Information concerning markets. 

4. Perishability of the fruit. 

5. Storage equalizes the supply. 

6. Quantity determines the sale. 

7. Acquaintance of the quality of fruit. 

8. Price depends on the supply and demand. 

9. Demands for certain fruit out of season. 
10. Supply of other fruits. 

4. References. 

a. Fruit Growing, by Bailey. 

b. Fruit Harvesting, Storing and Marketing, by Waugh. 

c. Fruit Growing, by Paddock and "Whipple. 

d. Iowa Bulletin No. 108. 

e. Arkansas Circular No. 13. 

f. N. H. Bulletin No. 93. 

g. N. Y. Bulletins Nos. 248, 297. 

GEOGRAPHY OF FRUIT GROWING. 

1. Relief form. Location. 

a. Low lands. c. Water. 

1. Plains. 1. Oceans. 

2. Valleys. 2. Lakes. 

b. High lands. 3. Rivers. 

1. Plateaus. 

2. Mountains. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 35 

2. Fruit zones. 

a. Temperature — typified by Pome fruit. 

b. Semi-tropical — typified by citrous fruit. 

c. Tropical — typified hy tropical fruit. 

d. Draw a map and locate each zone. 

e. Relative annual temperature. 

1. Depends on latitude, altitude, and bodies of water, 

3. Climate. 

a. Modification. 

1. Distribution of land and water. 

2. Elevation. 

3. Slopes. 

4. Mountains. 

5. Nature of surface. 

6. Prevailing winds. 

7. Bodies of water. 

8. Latitude. 

9. Moisture. 

a. Isotherms — lines of equal temperature. 

b. Isohyetoses — lines of equal rainfall. 

1. Pacific coast zone. 

2. Atlantic coast zone. 

3. Plain zone. 

4. Arid zone. 

10. "Winds and air currents. 

a. Name of wind zones. 

b. Breezes. 

1. Land and sea breezes. 

2. Canyon breezes. 
e. Mountain winds. 

d. Local winds. 

e. Study local air drainage. 
4. Accessibility. 

a. Railroads. 

b. Communication. 

c. Transportation. 

d. Wagon roads. 

e. Markets. 

1. Facilities. 

2. Consumption. 

SITES. 

1. The site should be elevated above its immediate surroundings. 

2. An elevated site will afford better soil drainage. 

3. An elevated site will afford better air drainage. 

4. Slopes. 

'a. The most intelligent and experienced orchardists differ as to the 
best location and exposure of an orchard, some preferring a 
northern slope, others an eastern slope. 

b. It is believed that the advantages preponderate in favor of a 
gentle eastern or northeastern slope, as orchards located on such 
a site suffer less from the effects of heat, drought, and poor soil 



36 MANUAL. OF HORTICULTURE 

c. An orchard with such an exposure will maintain its vigor and 
longevity better than if inclined to the west or southwest. 

d. All farms do not afford these most favorable sites, especially 
near the home, which is the most desirable location for the fam- 
ily orchard. 

e. The planter will often be forced to forego such a location and 
take his chances where the natural conditions are not so favor- 
able. 

5. A free circulation of air will be a great aid in guarding against late 
spring frosts, so fatal to young fruit at the blooming season. 

6. References: 

a. Fruit Growing by Bailey. 

b. Fruit Growing by Paddock and "Whipple. 

c. Farm and Garden Rule-Book, by Bailey. 

d. Popular Fruit Growing by Green. 

KIND OF SOILS. 

1. Loamy soil. 

a. A loamy soil is naturally rich in plant food ; hence it will need 
little, if any, manuring in its preparation. 

b. It should be deeply stirred and thoroughly broken up by sub- 
soiling. 

c. This loamy soil is what may be termed free soil, as it seldom 
becomes compacted, even by abusive treatment. 

2. Clay soil. 

a. A clay soil is the most difficult to prepare, and often requires 
manuring, as well as thorough plowing, re-plowing and subsoil- 
ing. 

b. It should also be frequently stirred during the summer months 
and especially as soon after each rainfall as is practicable, to 
prevent it from baking and becoming compacted. 

c. This becomes even more important in seasons of long droughts. 

3. Sandy soils. 

a. Sandy soils. are generally lacking in the necessary plant food, 

b. They also have the objection of losing such fertilizers as may 
be added by the several crops. 

4. Effects of several soils. 

a. The wood growth on loamy soils will be strong and vigorous, 
but maj'^ not be sufficiently mature to withstand the freezing of 
the more vigorous winters. 

b. Clay lands not apt to produce such vigorous growth, and orch- 
ard trees on such lands will be hardier as to winter-killing than 
on most other soils. 

c. With a free subsoil underlying it, a loamy clay soil will prob- 
ably yield the best results, especially if it be well prepared by 
thorough cultivation and subsoiling before the trees are planted. 

d. Timber lands, or lands on which forests have grown, if having 
the proper exposure and drainage, are good orchard sites. 

e. Such lands contain all the elements of plant food necessary to 
insure a good and sufficient wood growth and fruitfulness. 

f. Sandy soil is well adapted for fruit if it can be irrigated or is 
located where the water-table is within the reach of the roots 
of the trees. 



MANUAL, OF HORTICULTURE 



37 



THE TILLING OF FRUIT LANDS. 

1. Object. 

a. To improve the physical texture of the soil. 

b. To conserve the moisture of the soil. 

e. To give light, air and soil to plants by destroying the weeds. 

d. To protect from drought by keeping the top soil loose. 

1. To prevent evaporation. 

2. To increase capillary attraction. 

3. To hold moisture from subsoil near the surface. 

e. To set plant food free. 

1. Unlock the organic and inorganic elements. 

2. Kind of tools. 

a. Name and describe the different tools. 

b. Use of the various tools. 

c. Cultivators and rollers. 

3. Mulching. 

a. Kind. c. Conservation of moisture. 

b. Protect the trees or plants. d. May harbor insects. 

4. Preparation. 

a. The principal requirement in preparing land for planting an 
orchard is deep tillage, and the more thoroughly this work is 
done the more certain is the success. 

b. The preparation had best be done late in the fall, so that the 
land will be ready for early spring planting or for fall planting. 

c. Many successful orchardists, especially in the Western States, 
plow the ground in "lands" so as to make an open furrow 
where each row of trees is to be set, and then after the trees are 
planted back-furrow the ground so as to make lands with tree 
rows in the center. 

5. Suggestions for tilling fruit lands. 

a. Begin to till when the orch- 
ard is planted and keep it 
up. 

b. Begin tillage early in the 
season because of the 
growth of the trees early in 
the season. 

c. Tillage should generally be 
stopped by August 15th. 

d. Keep the land in a uniform 
fine tilth. 

e. If the tree growth is too 
rapid, tilling should be 
stopped. 

f. It is from capillary water 
that agricultural plants, for 
the most' part, obtain the 
water necessary for their 
growth. 

g. There should be no large 
spaces since these cause the ^. „, ^, 

• 1 , , . ,., , Fig. 23. — Shows spaces between par- 

soii to dry out readily and t-^ics. (Gofe and Maynes.) 




38 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



prevent the development of the many fine branching rootlets 

necessary to the best development of th plants, 
h. Mechanical condition of the soil must be porous but not loose ; 

firm, but not hard or consolidated; close-grained, but not run 

together nor adhesive. 
i. Pulverizing breaks the soil into granules which are free to move 

under capillary force and yet it does not exclude the air, nor 

interfere with any of the vital, chemical or physical processes in 

the soil, but is conducive to them. 

6. Effect of tillage. 

a. Fining the soil and presenting greater feeding surface to the 
roots. 

b. The roots will have a greater foraging and holding area. 

c. The soil is made warmer and dryer in the spring. 

d. The temperature and moisture are more uniform. 

e. Checks evaporation. 

f. Increases the water-holding capacity. 

g. Promotes chemical action and nitrification, 
h. Hastening decomposition of organic matter. 

i. The soil should be brought into the desirable condition already 
described, so that there will be a deep, mellow, but firm seed 
and root bed to absorb and store the rainfall and to prepare 
plant food. 

j. Plowing is the most important of the operations in preparing 
the seed bed. 

7. References, a. See references under sites. 

DRAINAGE. 
1. All orchard lands should be thoroughly surface-drained and under- 
drained. 



2. 



4. 





Fig. 24.— On well-drained soils the Fig. 25.— Wlien the drought comes the 

roots strike downward. ' plants do not suffer. 

(Principles of Agriculture, by Bailey.) 

No orchard can endure for a great length of time with stagnant 
water either on the surface or within the soil. 

All surplus water from excessive rainfall or from other causes 
should be promptly removed by either surface or sub-drainage. 
If the natural formation of the land does not afford such prompt 
drainage it must be provided artificiall3^ 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



39 



b. 



c. 



5. Need of air in the soil. 

a. There are flat lands and heavy clays where a system of tile 
drains is of more value than other treatment that can be given 
them. 

Such soils hold water within them in a form that has been des- 
ignated as free water, or gravitational water. 
There are several disadvantages or injurious consequences re- 
sulting from having a soil so filled with water. 

d. The oxygen of the air is necessary in soils for the direct use of 
plants. 

e. Their roots can not grow and extend into the soils to find water 
and food constituents except in the presence of oxygen. 

f . Seeds can not germinate in the absence of oxygen. 

g. Microscopic organisms, which are so essential in properly main- 
taining the fertility of soils, require oxygen just as much as 
higher organisms do. 

h. The decay of organic matter in the soil in the presence of oxy- 
gen is of such character that its products are usually favorable 
to plant growth. 

i. Nitrates, generally the most important elements of plant food, 
are produced in the presence of free oxygen only. 

6. Disadvantages of wet soils. 



Fig-. 





soil. 



uncongenial soil. 



A well-drained but moist ' Fig. 27. — A wet, 

(Principles of Agriculture. — By Bailey.) 

a. The entrance of this essential oxygen of the air into soils is 

hindered when the pores of the soil are filled with water. 





Fig. 28. — Showing the condition in Fig. 29. — When the drought comes 
spring on cold, undrained soils, when the plant is still shallow-rooted and it 
the water-table is too high, suffer.s. 

(Principles of Agriculture. — By Bailey.) 



40 MANUAL OF HORTICULTUKE 

b. Wet soils are cold, because the water as well as tbe soil must be 
heated and water warms up much more slowly than soil. 

c. The removal of the excess of water by drainage permits the heat 
of the sun to warm the soils earlier to a proper degree for the 
germination of seeds. 

d. Clay soils, when too wet, run together and become plastic, and 
with difficulty, are permeated by water, air, and the roots of 
plants. 

e. If they be plowed when too wet, they become still more puddled, 
and it requires protracted weathering to bring them into fair 
condition again. 

7. Depth of drains. 

a. Generally the deeper the tiles are placed, the more effective and 
perfect the drainage, and also the more expensive. 

b. Drains should be laid below the frost line and out of the way of 
all tillage operations. 

e. They should be laid by the use of a level, so that there may be 
no sags or traps in the drain, and the outlets should be such 
that the water runs freely from the tile. 

d. The depth varies from 2% to 4 feet deep. 

e. The depth depends on the subsoil. 

f . The ground-water surface should not be below the limit that the 
water can be lifted by capillarity. 

8. Distance between drains depends on: 

a. The freedom with which water may flow through the subsoil 
toward the drains. 

b. The depth at which the drains are placed. 

c. The interval of time between rainfalls. 

9. Kind of drains. 

a. Surface ditches or furrows between the rows of trees may af- 
ford temporary drainage, but they are objectionable on other 
accounts that will be apparent ; for an orchard thus drained will 
be difficult to get over in its necessary care and in gathering and 
handling the fruit. 

b. Under-drainage is far better on these accounts; besides it is 
much more thorough, especially if accomplished by means of 
well laid tile. 

c. A thorough breaking up of the subsoil will afford temporary 
drainage in a stiff clay soil, but in a few years the soil may again 
become compacted, when it will require re-stirring. 

d. But in all cases the planter must be the judge of the special 
drainage requirements of his soil and location. 

10. How water enters tile drains. 

a. Through the walls and joints of the tile. 

b. The length of the tile should be short. 

11. The size of tile. 

a. Six-inch tile generally gives better satisfaction than smaller tile. 

b. There are less chance for six-inch tile to become clogged with 
roots and silt than smaller tile. 

12. References. 

a. See references under sites. 

b. Soils, Vol. I, by Brooks. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 41 

c. Irrigation and Drainage by King. 

WINDBREAKS. 

1. Position of windbreaks. 

2. How to make windbreaks. 

3. Benefits. i. Lessens the drying of fruit. 

a. Protection from cold. j. Lessens the maturity of fruit. 

b. Reduces evaporation. k. More birds, 
e. Lessens windfalls. 4. Injurious. 

d. Lessens damage to trees. a. May be colder. 

e. Eetains snow and leaves. b. Increases insects and diseases. 

f. Facilitates labor. 1. Check by spraying. 

g. Protects blossoms. c. Trees less thrifty. 

h. Makes straighter trees. d. Damage from late spring frosts. 

5. Kind of trees. 

6. References. 

a. Fruit Growing by Bailey. 

b. Fruit Growing by Poddock and Whipple. 

c. Colorado Bulletin No. 35. 

d. North Dakota Bulletin No. 88. 

e. Iowa Extension Bulletin No. 5. 

f. Nevada Bulletin No. 79. 

SOIL FERTILITY. 

1. It is fully realized that all soils are not of the same producing 
value and we are to determine in a large measure the causes which 
go to make towards fertility and also those causes which tend to 
make a soil sterile. 

2. Comparison of soils. 

a. Two soils may give practically the same mechanical analysis, 
and one may be a good soil, while the other may be a very poor 
soil. 

b. Two soils may give practically the same chemical analysis, and 
one may be productive, while the other may not. 

c. Two soils may contain practically the same content of plant food 
elements and may be very far apart in agricultural value. 

d. Agricultural value. 

1. This is due to the fact that plant food exists as soluble mat- 
ter in the soil water. 

2. The water capacity of the sandy soil is less than the silty 
or clayey. 

3. Under the same conditions, if a plant begins to suffer for 
water when the clayey soil has its water contents reduced to 
12%, the plant will not suffer in silty soil until the water con- 
tents are reduced to S% and in sandy soil from 6 to 4%. 

4. Hence the soluble plant food is more concentrated in sand 
than in the others. 

5. For this reason the chemical analysis may show less total 
plant food in the sandy than in the clay, yet the former may 
produce better crops. 

3. The capacity of a soil to grow crops does not depend upon the 
quantities of food compounds present but upon the quantities of 
them which are available to the plants in liquid form. 



42 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

4. Plant food made available in liquid form by 

a. Oxidation caused by warm moisture and air, as rust. 

1. Plowing, cultivation, and irrigation may loosen, pulverize 
and aerate the soil causing oxidation. 

b. Solution caused by bacteria producing acid of decay. 

1. Addition of humus or organic matter aids the bacteria in pro- 
ducing the acid of decay. 

5. Soil may be made more fertile by — 

a. Green manuring. 

1. Green manuring, or the plowing under of crops, is one of the 
oldest methods used to maintain or to increase the productiv- 
ity of the soil. 

2. The effect of green manuring varies according to the original 
character of the soil. 

3. In general, sandy or gravelly soils are made darker in color 
and become more retentive of moisture. 

4. Clayey soils are made more porous and friable, so that they 
are less likely to puddle or bake, and are less subject to 
washing. 

5. The most important object achieved by green manuring is the 
addition of humus to the soil. 

6. Deep-rooted plants are decidedly preferable to shallow-rooted 
ones because they penetrate into the subsoil. 

7. In this way, air and water find entrance, especially after the 
roots decay. 

8. It is also supposed that such plants, especially when plowed 
under, tend to enrich the surface soil with potash and phos- 
phorus from the subsoil, thus bringing these substances with- 
in reach of the shallow-rooted plants. 

9. See Cover crops. 

b. Barnyard manure. 

1. Barnyard manure is the most important manurial resource of 
the farm and should be carefully saved and used. 

2. It represents fertility which is drawn from the soil and must 
be returned to it if productiveness is to be maintained. 

3. It not only enriches the soil with nitrogen, phosphoric acid 
and potash, but it also renders the stored-up materials of the 
soil more available; improves the mechanical condition of 
the soil, makes it warmer, and enables it to retain more 
moisture. 

4. The amounts of fertilizing constituents in the manure stand 
in direct relation to those in the food. 

a. As regards the value of manure produced, the concen- 
trated feeding stuffs, such as meat scraps, cotton-seed 
meal, linseed meal and wheat bran, stand first ; the legum- 
inous plants (clover, peas, etc.) second; the grasses, third; 
cereals (oats, corn, etc.), fourth; and root crops, such as 
turnips, beets and mangel wurzels, last. 

5. The nitrogen of the food exerts a greater influence on the 
quality of the manure than any other constituent. 

6. It undergoes more modification in the animal stomach than 
the mineral constituents (potash and phosphoric acid), and 
rapidly escapes from the manure in fermentation. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUKB . 43 

-^7. The deterioration of manure results from two chief causes. 

a. Fermentation, whereby nitrogen, either as ammonia or in 
the gaseous state, is set free. 

b. Weathering or leaching, which involves a loss of the solu- 
ble fertilizing constituents. 

8. The loss from destructive fermentation may be largely pre- 
vented by the use of proper absorbents and by keeping the 
manure moist and compact. 

9. Loss from leaching may be prevented by storage under cover 
or in water-tight pits. 

10. The disposition to be made of the manure of the farm (both 
fermented and unfermented) must be determined largely by 
the nature of the crop and soil. 

11. Where improvement of the mechanical condition of the soil 
is the principal object sought, fresh manure is best adapted 
for this purpose to heavy soils and well-rotted manure to 
light soils. It is not advisable to let manure rot even for the 
latter soil; it ought to be used fresh. 

12. It not only supplies humus, but it contains a large per cent 
of other necessary nutritive elements for maintaining health, 
vigor and fruitfulness of tree and for the developemnt of the 
proper qualities for fine fruit. 

. Commercial Fertilizers. 

1. Nitrog-en. 

a. Sources. 

1. Animals, dried blood, tankage, fish offal, meat scraps, 
flesh and meal. 

2. Vegetation. 

a. Cotton seed meal. 

b. Leguminous crops, as clover and peas. 

b. Use of nitrogen. 

1. Organic nitrogen exists in combination with other ele- 
ments, either as vegetable or animal matter. 

2. All materials containing nitrogen are valuable in pro- 
portion to the rapidity of decay or change. 

3. Organic nitrogen differs in availability, not only ac- 
cording to the kind of material which supplies it, but 
according to the treatment it receives. 

4. Gradual change makes nitrogenous manures valuable 
in light, open soils, from which the nitrate or ammonia 
nitrogen tends to disappear too quickly. 

5. The amount of available phosphoric acid, potash and 
lime is determined by the decay of the nitrogenous 
organic matter. 

6. Nitrogen is essential to vigorous growth, and over- 
supply promotes rank growth of twigs and foliage. 

7. Nitrogen gives a full, dark green color to the foliage. 

8. Nitrogen gives a splendid leaf and wood growth. 

9. Nitrogen used in excess produces too much wood and 
less fruit, 

2. Potash, 

a. Sources, 



44 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

1. "Wood ashes. 

2. Stassfurt salts. 

3. Kainite. 

4. Muriate of potash. 

5. Sulphate of potash. 

b. Uses of potash. 

1. It is important in fruit growing. 

a. It aids in developing buds and leaves. ♦ 

b. It aids in developing color. 

c. It is the base in combination with fruit acids. 

d. It adds ash to the fruit. 

2. Its presence is necessary for the formation of starch 
and sugar, although it does not enter into their compo- 
sition. 

3. It gives firmness and aids in maturing and ripening the 
wood. 

3. Phosphates. 

a. Sources. 

1. Phosphoric rocks. 

2. Phosphate slug. 

3. Bone. 

4. Guano. 

b. Use of phosphate. 

1. Phosphoric acid is derived from materials called phos- 
phates in which it may exist in combination with lime, 
iron or alumina. 

2. Phosphate of lime is the form most largely used as a 
phosphoric acid. 

3. Phosphoric acid occurs in fertilizers, as : 

a. That soluble in water, and readily taken up by 
plants. 

b. That slightly soluble in water, but still readily used 
by plants, also known as '' reverted." 

c. That very sparingly soluble in water, and conse- 
quently very slowly used by the plant. 

d. The gases and organic acids produced in the decay 
of vegetable substance greatly increases its solubil- 
ity and causes phosphates to serve as a source of 
available plant food. 

4. It is important in the developing of seeds. 

5. It adds to the perfect ripening of the fruit. 

6. It is an essential constituent of tree and fruit. 

7. It will correct the too great a growth caused by the 
excess of nitrogen, turning the excessive growth into 
flowers and fruit. 

4. Lime. 

a. Sources. 

1. Limestone. 

2. Chalk. 

3. Shells. 

4. Marl. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUIIE 45 

b. Use of lime. 

1. It aids in producing hard, firm wood. 

2. It aids the tree to mature and to go into the dormant 
state. 

3. It liberates plant food. 

4. It liberates potassium. 

5. Signs of need for fertilizers, 

a. See nitrogen, potash, phosphate. 

b. "When the growth of the terminal branches fails to make 
an annual growth of at least one foot, the tree should be 
stimulated by manuring the land and giving it a thorough 
cultivation. 

c. Study the tubercles of the leguminous plants in the field 
that gives poor results. 

6. Orchards that are well tilled, well drained and properly sup- 
plied with organic matter from stable manure or cover crops 
need very little commercial fertilizers. 

7. If trees are not vigorous, bearing well, and making fair 
growth each year, the thing to do is to look to the drainage, 
tillage and health of the trees first. 

8. References. 

a. Fruit Growing by Bailey. 

b. Fruit Growing by Paddock and Whipple. 

c. U. S. Dept. Bulletins Nos. 77, 121, 192, 271, 278. 

d. Wisconsin Bulletin No. 82. 

e. Maryland Bulletin No. 144. 

f . Soils and Fertilizers by Snyder. 

IRRIGATION. 

1. Physical properties. 

a. Climatic conditions. 

b. Character and depth of soil. 

1. Examination should be made. 

a. The character and depth of the soil. 

b. Its behavior when irrigated. 

c. The slope and evenness of the surfaces. 

d. The presence of injurious salts. 

e. The facilities for drainage. 

c. The top layer of the soil. 

1. Protects the moist soil beneath, which furnishes both food 
and water to the fibrous roots. 

2. The presence of any hard, impervious stratum is objection- 
able. 

3. A porous stratum of coarse gravel may waste large quanti- 
ties of irrigation water. 

4. The subsoil is determined by boring holes to a depth of 10 
feet, and taking samples of soil at different depths. 

2. Proper percentage of soil moisture. 

a. Too little, as well as too much moisture in soils, injures plants 
and it is not easy to find out how much is best for each kind of 
soil and for each kind of crop. 

b. About three-fifths of the volume of clay soils and two-fifths of 
sandy soils are open spaces, while the loams range between. 



46 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

c. The greater part of the water found in the open spaces fur- 
nishes moisture to the roots of plants ; the remainder clings to 
the soil particles and requires a considerable amount of heat to 
drive it off in the form of vapor, 

d. Moisture is not the only essential. 

1. In attempting to find out how much free moisture cropped 
soils should contain, it is well to bear in mind the fact that 
while moisture is the principal element in growing crops on 
arid lands, it is not the only essential. 

2. Temperature, winds, sunshine, fogs, disease and a lack of air 
in the soil very frequently affect crops. 

3. When a crop is suffering, an effort should be made to dis- 
cover the cause and not jump to the conclusion that more 
water is needed. 

3. Movement of water in soils. 

a. The greater part of the water that falls as rain passes into the 
soil. 

b. The water which does enter the soil passes downward, as free or 
gravitational water which forms visible liquid layers on the soil 
grains or occurs between them being pulled down by gravity. 

c. The water held by the soil particles against the force of gravity 
is called capillary water. 

d. It can not be seen as liquid water, but its presence may be recog- 
nized by its effect upon the color of the soil, 

e. If in too great quantity to be disposed of by capillarity, the rain 
water runs down into the lower soil and finally joins the so- 
called gravitational water, raising its level temporarily. 

f. In dry weather the capillary water evaporates from the surface 
of the soil; the soil draws more water from below, but not in 
sufficient quantity wholly to replace that lost by evaporation. 

g. There is a continual decrease in the content of capillary water 
until another rainfall. 

h. The free or gravitational water may rise into the soil as capil- 
lary water to replace that lost by evaporation. 
i. It is constantly running out of the soil into the natural drainage 

channels as spring and seepage waters. 
j. These several motions of water all take place when the rainfalls 
are sufficient to give an excess over what the soil can hold in 
what has been called the capillary state, 
k. If the surface soil be open and loose, heavy rains completely fill 
the spaces of the upper soil. 

1. When the pulverized layer is thin, it often becomes so soft 
and filled with water that this loose layer washes and greatly 
injures a field. 

4. Time to irrigate. 

a. Tests for moisture. 

1. Healthy, vigorous growth of stems, branches and foliage of 
light green color are an indication of moisture. 

2. Do not wait to irrigate until the leaves turn to dark, dull 
shade of green and begin to curl. 

3. Find out where the feeding roots are located ; nature of soil 
around them; test the soil from 6 to 12 inches beneath the 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 47 

surface by compressing it in the hand; if it falls apart, it is 
too dry. 

EXERCISE 3. 

1. Object: To test for capillary water in the soil. 

2. Method: 

a. Take a sample of soil from around the roots of the tree 
about 2 feet. 

b. Place sample of soil in a glass fruit jar and screw on 
the cover tightly on a rubber band. 

c. Weigh sample before drying. 

d. Dry the sample in sun or drying oven. 

e. "Weigh sample after it is dried. 

f. Divide the loss in weight by the weight of moist soil to 
get the per cent of free water. 

g. The moisture should range between 5 to 10 per cent in 
orchard loams. 

5. The number of irrigations depends on: 

a. Depth and nature of soil; amount of rainfall; temperature; 
wind. 

b. When the rainfall is less than 20 inches, irrigation is a great 
help with such fruit; as, the apple. 

c. Three irrigations during the growing season are ample under 
most conditions if followed by intensive cultivation. 

d. Irrigation usually begins about the last of April or early in 
May and at intervals of 20 to 30 days. 

e. Light irrigation may be given the last of August to produce : 
Good crop of fruit; prevent heavy dropping; give more color 
to fruit. 

f. Do not use large amount of water near the time of picking as it 
tends to keep the trees in active growth and may have a bad 
effect on the fruit; as, peaches. 

g. It is poor practice to irrigate peaches within three weeks of 
picking time. 

h. Heavy irrigation with young orchards may increase winter- 
killing and is sure to retard root development, hence growth. 

i. There must be good drainage. 

j. Irrigation at intervals of thirty to forty-five days during the 
irrigation season will provide ample moisture for ordinary 
loamy soils. 

k. Young trees are watered by a furrow on each side of the row, 
and as the trees grow older and larger the number of furrows 
is increased until all the space between the rows is watered. 
1. It is better to make the irrigation ditch in the tree row in alkali 
soil as there will be more alkali between the furrows than in 
the irrigating furrows. 

m. The idea to be kept in mind is to train the roots outward and 
downward so as to enlarge their feeding zone. 

n. The legs a young tree is irrigated and yet kept in a rapid grow- 
ing condition the greater the development of the root system. 
0. The best guide to successful practice is to make frequent exca- 
vations to find out not only the location of the roots, but also 
how far and in which direction the Avater from the furrows has 
percolated. 



48 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

6. Cultivation after irrigation. 

a. When the tract is planted with the right kind of stock the next 
most important thing is frequent and thorough cultivation. 

b. The surface should be cultivated after each rain and after each 
irrigation, and occasionally in the intervals. 

c. The proper depth to cultivate will depend on a variety of con- 
ditions, but it is well to bear in mind that if anything like com- 
plete protection from soil evaporation is desired, the cultivator 
teeth should be lowered to eight inches beneath the surface. 

d. Objects: 

1. To maintain a sufficient supply of moisture. 

2. To make available plant food. 

3. To pulverize the soil making a greater fooding area for the 
rootlets of the trees. 

4. To give an additional root-holding area for the plants. 

5. To promote nitrification. 

6. To hasten decomposition of humus and organic matter. 

7. To form a mulch to prevent evaporation. 

7. References: 

a. Fruit Growing by Bailey. 

b. Fruit Growing by Paddock and Whipple. 

c. U. S. Bulletins Nos. 116, 404, 158, 263. 

d. Oregon Bulletin No. 111. 

e. Irrigation and Drainage by King. 

GROWTH OF FRUIT TREES 

Compared With Other Crops. 
1. First comparison. 

a. Trees have a preparatory time of several years before fruit 
bearing begins. 

b. Trees have several "off years" during their life. 

e. Farm crops make their growth, bear crop and pass away in a 

single season, 
d. Essential factors for both. 

1. Temperature. 

a. It is sufficient to say that the climate of a section of a 
country, with regard to temperature, fixes within limits, 
the kind of crops which can be grown with success. 

2. Moisture. 

a. Water is a very important factor in crop production. 

b. The size of the crop decreases if the amount of water is 
lessened, or increased beyond a certain point, that is to 
say, if the soil is kept too wet or too dry. 

c. A clay soil requires more moisture than a sandy soil, but 
at the same time the clay soil has greater power of hold- 
ing the moisture than a sandy soil.. 

d. Sandy soil requires more frequent rains or more frequent 
application of irrigation water. 

H. Air. 

a. Air is necessary for plant growth, and free circulation of 
air should surround the roots of a plant as well as the fol- 
iage. 
h. If the soil is compact or water-logged, the air cannot free- 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 49 

ly penetrate and the plants will not thrive under these 
conditions. 

c. The conditions regarding air in the soil can be made more 
favorable for the growth of plants by thoroughly stirring. 

d. If plants are crowded for room, we find that the foliage 
is not so luxuriant, neither is the growth so vigorous as 
where more space is given. 

e. It is possible by proper methods of cultivation to give the 
plant roots more air and by judicious planting, to give 
more air to the foliage. 

4. Sunshine. 

a. The amount of sunshine which a plant receives is very 
important as regards the growth of the plant. 

b. Without sunshine it is impossible for plants to assimilate 
carbon dioxide and build up plant tissue. 

c. Plants absorb carbon dioxide through the leaves, and this 
is changed to carbohydrates by the action of sunshine. 

d. The amount of sunshine which the land receives during the 
day is not under the control, but the amount which the 
individual plant receives can be controlled within limits, 
and this depends largely upon the amount of space given 
the plant. 

2. Second Comparison. 

a. Trees begin early in the spring and continue to grow until late 
fall, so that fruit, leaf, and wood have a longer period in which 
to develop than annual and biennial crops. 

b. There would seem to be less need for highly concentrated foods 
for the slow growing crops. 

3. Third Comparison. 

a. The roots of trees run much deeper in the soil and probably 
spread as far as those of the succulent plants. 

b. The larger root-run and feeding ground should enable trees to 
thrive with less artificial feeding than is necessary with farm 
crops. 

e. That trees can grow vigorously under natural conditions in poor 
soil for a long time, is an indication of their ability to obtain 
more nourishment from soil than farm crops. 

d. Essential factors for both. 
1. Space. 

a. Other conditions being favorable, the largest individual 
plant is secured when it has unlimited space at its disposal 
for the extent of foliage and roots. 

b. By increasing the number of plants per acre, the size of 
the individual plant is decreased, but the yield per acre is 
increased up to a certain point on account of the increase 
of the number of plants. 

c. The space offered the roots depends upon the distance be- 
tween the plants and the depth of soil to which the roots 
may penetrate. 

d. Not only is the amount of water available to the plant in- 
creased as the roots go deeper, but the amount of plant 
food is also increased with the bulk of soil which the roots 
penetrate. 



50 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

e. Loosening a fine soil or compacting a coarse soil, increases 
the amount of water which it will hold. 

f. The quantity of water in the soil at any given time de- 
pends upon the location; the character of the soil; the 
treatment which it has received, and the rainfall or the 
amount of water applied artificially. 

2. Physical conditions. 

a. The physical conditions of the soil determine the amount 
of moisture which it absorbs and holds, and the penetra- 
tion of the air into it. 

b. Air is necessary both for the roots of plants and for the 
changes in the soil which are essential to its productive- 
ness. 

c. A heavy soil may be made more easily workable by the 
application of manure, and it is interesting to note that 
light, sandy soils are improved in the same way. 

d. The physical condition depends to a limited extent upon 
its physical compositions; its chemical composition; its 
biological conditions, and the treatment to which it has 
been subjected. 

3. Biological conditions. 

a. In good agricultural soils we find bacteria which play a 
very important part in ^oil fertility. 

b. They set up fermentation in the soil, decomposing organic 
matter, forming organic acids which react with the min- 
eral ingredients in the soil, decomposing them and making 
them available to the plants. 

e. The nitrogenous substances in organic matter are con- 
verted into ammonia compounds and eventually to nitric 
acid, or salts of nitric acid, making the nitrogen available 
to the plants. 

d. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria. 

1. They are capable of fixing the free nitrogen of the at- 
mosphere, making it available, as plant food, while the 
nitrifying bacteria work upon the organic nitrogen, or 
the fixed nitrogen, which is already present in the soil, 
converting it into nitric acid or salts of nitric acid. 

2. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria which are harbored by the 
legumes should not be confused with the nitrifying bac- 
teria which are present in the soil. 

3. Certain kinds of bacteria are capable of converting 
fixed nitrogen to nitrous acid, or salts of nitrous acid, 
while another set convert these compounds to nitric 
acid or salts of nitric acid. . . 

4. Other factors. 

a. The action is most rapid in a damp soil, and ceases 
entirely if the soil is air dried. 

b. Bright light suspends the action and eventually de- 
stroys the bacteria. 

c. Free supplies of oxygen are necessary, hence nitrifi- 
cation cannot take place in boggy soils, nor can it 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



51 



take place in strongly alkalied soils or water-logged 
soils. 




§1 2 J3 



Fig. 30. — Shows the formation of plant food. — (Goff and Mayne.) 

e. Using the above figure, explain the following : 

1. Plants derive their food both from the air and from the 
soil. How ? 

2. The elements derived from the air are carbon-dioxide, 
oxygen. How ? 

3. Those derived from the soil are taken up through the 
roots, and are as follows: Phosphorus in the form of 
phosphoric acid, or its salts (probably an acid calcium 
phosphate), potash, nitrogen (in combination as a salt 
of nitric acid), lime, iron, sulphur, chlorine, and mag- 
nesia. How ? 

4. If any of these substances are withheld, the plant ceases 
to grow, or at best, makes a very sickly growth. Why? 

5. The elements which are liable to be deficient in the soils 
of the arid and semi-arid countries are phosphoric acid 
and nitrogen. 

Fourth Comparison. 

a. Trees probably transpire larger quantities of water than herb- 
aceous crops. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

b. The more woody and fibrous the plant, the greater the number 
of tons of water required for a ton of dry matter. 

c. The relatively great number of stomata on the leaves of fruit 
trees indicate that the fruit trees are "heavy drinkers" and 
transpire a greater amount of water in proportion to their leaf- 
areas than succulent plants. 

d. The nutritive soil solutions may be less concentrated for fruit 
trees than for grass and vegetable crop. 

e. See irrigation. 
Fifth comparison. 

a. The fruit crops have a greater per cent of water than field 
crops. 

b. Apples are about 85 per cent water. 

c. The fruit crops require smaller amount of solid and mineral 
matter than field crops. 

d. Tabulation of the elements that the different fruit crops re- 
move from the soil by one acre of orchard. 

Name Nitrogen Phos. Acid Potash Lime Magnesium 



Apple . . 


51.5 lbs. 


14 lbs. 


55 lbs. 


57 lbs. 


23 lbs. 


Peach . . 


74.5 lbs. 


18 lbs. 


72 lbs. 


114 lbs 


35 'bs. 


Pear . . . 


29.5 lbs. 


7 lbs. 


33 lbs. 


38 lbs. 


11 lbs. 


Plum . . . 


29.5 lbs. 


8.5 lbs. 


38 lbs. 


41 lbs. 


13 lbs. 



e. Study the above table. 

1. "WTiieh crop removes the greatest amount of plant food? 

2. What fertilizer is needed for apples? Peach? Pears? 
Plums ? 

f. The three elements that must be supplied to soil by commercial 

fertilizers are nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid. 
Sixth comparison. 

a. Fruit crops are a continuous cropping of one kind. 

b. There being no opportunity to change the crop to some other 
which might require different amounts of the plant-food con- 
stituents. 

c. It seems certain that nitrogen at least must have to be replaced. 

d. Cultivated crops in an orchard. 

1. Space of three to four feet should be left on each side of each 
row of trees. 

2. Early maturing crops are the best kind to grow because late 
cultivation for late maturing crops may cause large growth 
of the trees and if this growth fails to ripen, the trees may be 
winter killed. 

3. It will give to the orchard thorough cultivation. 

4. They will afford a shade to the newly planted tree at the sea- 
son when it most needs the portection from the sun's greatest 
heat. 

5. The physical condition of the soil will be improved. 

6. Such crops as corn, potatoes, cabbage, etc., may be grown to 
an advantage. 

e. Cover crops in an orchard. 

1. Important uses of a cover crop. 

a. Covering the ground when the tree growth is not very 
active or entirely dormant. 



MAJsTJAL OF HOETIGULTURE 



53 



b. They elieck the growth of the trees in the fall and cause 
them to ripen their -wood. 

c. They hold the soluble plant food which might leach out by 
drainage in late fall and early spring. 

d. They catch the rain and conduct it into the soil and pre- 
vent the soil washing away. 

e. They hold the snow for further protection of the soil. 

f . They protect the ground from deep freezing. 

g. They add vegetable matter to the soil. 

2. Humus improves the physical conditions. 

a. It loosens up the soil particles and prevents cementing or 
puddling. 

b. It increases the water holding power of the soil. 

c. It provides a favorable home for soil bacteria. 

d. It furnishes elements of plant food in available form. 

e. It assists in breaking up chemical compounds of plant 
foods. 

f. Humus is the final product of organic decay. 

3. Classification of crops. 

a. Legnminous plants. 

1. Crops — clover, vetches, alfalfa, cowpeas, soy beans, etc. 

2. These crops are nitrogen gatherers, because special 
forms of soil bacteria associate with them and extract 
free nitrogen from the air and store it in tubercles 
on the plant roots. 

3. If the soil is defic- 
ient in nitrogen, 
these bacteria form 
many tubercles on 
the roots of the 
plant, but if the soil 
is well supplied with 
humus and nitrogen 
they form fewer 
tubercles on the 
roots. 

4. This class of plants 
returns large 
amounts of potash, 
nitrogen and humus 
to the soil. 

b. Potash plants. 

1. Crops — cowhorn, 
turnips, and rape. 

2. They are gross feed- 
ers and take up 
cruder forms of 
plant food than the 
more delicate nitro- 

wpn wpthprp-rc .■^*^- 13.— Shows where nitrogen of the 

5,e±j. „£iLiicxcis>. air is changed to nitrates. 

3. They store up some nitrogen, potash, and some phos- 
phoric acid. 




54 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

c. Ordinary plants. 

1. Crops — rye, oats, wheat, buckwheat, etc. 

2. They are useful when enough nitrogen is stored in the 
ground, as a winter cover or to return humus to the soil 
where only the physical texture needs to be improved. 

4. Cover crops furnish nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid to 
the soil. 

5. Amount of fertilizers in each crop. 

til §1 ll§ «oo S| -gi II Hi 

Nitrogen '. 109.5 129.4 134.4 103.0 90 121.2 69^5 140.2 

Equal to Nitrate of Soda (16%) 684.2 808.8 840.0 643.8 595.0 757.5 433.4 876.2 

Phosphoric Acid 26.0 46.9 61.2 29.0 21.6 27.2 18.9 40.2 

Equal to Acid Phosphate (14%) 185.7 335.0 437.1 207.1 154.3 194.3 135.0 287.1 

Potash 142.6 161.3 88.2 56.4 41.7 85.5 49.8 48.0 

Equal to Muriate of Potash (50%).. 285. 2 322.6 176.4 112.8 83.4 171.0 99.6 96.0 

6. What and when to plant. 

a. In general, if the trees make good growth, but if the soil 
lacks humus as shown by it not being friable or mealy, 
then plant such crops as winter wheat or rye. 

b. If the ground seems friable or mealy and loamy, but the 
trees do not make proper growth, the tree lacks nitrogen 
yet there is plenty of humus in the soil ; in this case plant 
a legume as Russian hairy vetch. 

e. Plant cover crops in July or early August and let grow un- 
til late spring, then turn under. 
7. References. 

a. See Soil Fertility. 

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 

1. Purposes. 

a. Reproduction of plants. 

b. Perpetuated valuable varieties. 

c. Aid nature in producing good stock. 

2. Means by which plants are reproduced. 

a. Natural reproduction. 

1. Rootstock. 

a. Many species of plants are reproduced by means of rootstocks 
which push out laterally in all directions from parent plant, de- 
veloping rootlets and throwing up stems ; as, Johnson grass, and 
Bermuda grass. 

2. Stolens. 

a. Some plants throw out trailing branches or runners, which take 
root and produce new plants. 

b. Examples — strawberry, raspberry. 

3. Suckers and root-sprouts. 

a. Plants reproduce by means of suckers and sprouts. 

b. Plants like red raspberry, blackberry and some plums. 

c. Plants reproduced by cuttings grow by means of root sprouts ; 
as willows, poplars. 

4. Bulbs and corms. 

a. A bulb is a short rudimentary axis encased in more or less close 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 55 

_) 

fitting, fleshy leaves or bulb scales, in which is stored up nutri- 
ment to be used in subsequent growth. 

b. Bulbs usually form at or just beneath the surface of the ground. 

c. They may be divided into two general classes. 

1. Those composed of scales which are more or less narrow and 
loose, as in the lily. 

2. Those composed of more or less continuous and close fitting 
layers or plates, as in the onion. 

d. Bulbs often divide naturally into two or more parts, or may be 
so divided artificially, each of which part serves the purpose of 
a complete bulb in propagation. 

e. Bulbs are often caused to produce bulblets artificially by wound- 
ing or mutilating them. 

f. A corm resembles a bulb in appearance, but differs from it in 
being solid throughout. 

g. Small corms, or cormels, are developed in very much the same 
manner as are daughter bulbs. 

h. Examples of corm-producing plants are the Indian turnip, cro- 
cus, gladiolus and caladium. 
5. Spores are not true seeds. 

a. They are the means of reproduction of a great number of spe- 
cies, such, for instance, as ferns and the various fungi. 

b. Mushrooms are the most important class of cultivated plants 
which depend on spores for reproduction. 

Exercise 4. 

1. Object : To show how spores are developed. 

2. Method: 

a. Spores can be developed easily by cutting a potato in two, 
rubbing lightly the freshly cut surface of one-half with a 
piece of moldy bread and putting it on a plate under an 
inverted tumbler. 

b. Keep this covered potato in a warm, but rather dark place, 
for several days, examining it every few hours to note pro- 
gress in the growth of the mold. 

c. A heavy growth of mold grows in two or three days. 

d. Little globular spore-cases will grow at the tops of slen- 
der branches which spring up from a network of whitish 
threadlike material. 

e. Observe spore cases to see if any change occurs in them as 
they mature. 

f. Study molds by using a microscope if available. 

g. The rusty spots seen near the margins of fern leaves are 
spore cases. 

h. When you step on a puffball it sends up a ^loud of spores. 

b. Artificial reproduction. 

1. Glass buildings. 

2. Frame buildings. 

3. Hot-beds. 

4. Cold frame and forcing hills. 

5. Management of buildings. 



56 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUEE 



6. The process to be used, is chosen with reference 
a. No. of buds. b. Seasons. c. 

1. Cutting — one to 1. All year except 
several. July and Au- 
gust. 

2. Grafting — two or 2. Last month of 

more. winter or first 

r second of 
spring. 

3. Layering — one to 3. Spring and 
several. winter. 

4. Budding — one. 4. Early and late 

summer. 

CUTTINGS. 
1. Kind of cuttings. 

a. Forms of hard-wood cuttings. 



to: 

Condition of ma- 
terial. 

1. Dormant or 
growing. 

2. Scions — dor- 
mant, stock- 
dormant or 
growing. 

3. Growing. 

4. Growing o r 
dormant pre- 
ferably the 

first. 





Fig 32 — Cuttings: a, simple cutting-; b, heel cutting; c, mallet cutting; d, single- 
eye or t ting. 

1. Simple cutting. 

a. The most common form of hard-wood cuttings is that usually 

"inployed in propagating the grape and currant, 
b ~~5nch a cutting consists of a straight portion of a shoot or cane 
early uniform in size throughout and -containing two or more 

' uds. 
e. Vt the lower end it is usually cut off just below a bud, because 

roots develop most readily from the joints, 
d. At the top it is usually cut off some distance above the highest 

bud. 

2. The heel cutting. 

a. A cutting of this form consists of the lower portion of a branch. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



57 



containing two or more buds, cut off from the parent branch in 
such a manner as to carry with it a small portion of that branch 
forming the so-called "heel." 
The mallet cutting. 

a. A cutting of this form is produced by severing the parent 
branch above and below a shoot, so as to leave a section of it on 
the base of the cutting. 

b. The principal advantage in the use of the heel and mallet cut- 
tings lies in the greater certainty of developing roots. 

c. The principal drawback is that only one cutting can be made 
from each lateral branch. 

Single-eye cutting. 

a. It is used to make the largest number of cuttings containing but 
one bud each. 

b. Such cuttings are commonly started under glass with bottom 
heat either in greenhouse or hotbed. 

c. They may be set in either horizontal position with the bud on 
the upper side or perpendicularly. 

d. In either case the bud is placed about an inch below the surface 
of the ground in soil which should be kept uniformly moist. 

Treatment of hard-wood cuttings. 

a. Cuttings are usually made with two or more buds. 

b. Spring cuttings are made and then set out in nursery rows. 

c. Fall cuttings are tied together in bundles of 25 to 50 with butts 
one way; and, 

d. They should be buried out of doors or put in moist sand or saw- 
dust in the cellar with tips down. 

e. The top buds are protected from freezing and the butts receive 
the benefit of the warmth of the sun in the spring, thus stimu- 
lating root growth. ^^_ 

f. In the spring, the fall cuttings are .' 
set out about six inches apart in a 
trench with only the topmost bud 
or buds above the surface. ;. 

g. Fine mellow soil is packed tight- 1 
ly around them from three tof 
four inches deep. 

h. In planting, the cuttings should; 
be exposed to light and air as lit- 
tle as possible. 

Exercise 5. 

1. Object: To show hard-wood cuttings. 

2. Method: 

a. At any time when they are dormant, take from last year's 
vigorous, thrifty, mature growth, cuttings of the grapes, 
flowering shrubs, gooseberries, currants, willows, pop- 
lars, etc. 

b. Let the cuttings be from 6 to 8 inches long. 

c. Let the lower cut be made just below the last node. 

d. Tie them in bundles of twenty to twenty-five, label, and 
pack in boxes of green sawdust or moist sand, and place in 
a cool place if the cuttings are taken before spring. 




Fig. 33, Cutting set in trench 



58 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



e. When spring comes the cuttings may be started in a prop- 
agation box or out of doors. 

f. Plant in a slanting position, leaving the last node above 
the ground. 




Fis. 34, Shows greenwood cuttings. 

g. Press the soil firmly around the base of the cuttings. 

h. Plant two or three inches apart in the row and the rows 

four feet apart, 
i. Cultivate during the season, 
j. Transplant at the end of one season's growth. 
b. Soft-wood cuttings. 

1. This class of cuttings is exemplified in the ^'slips'' used to increase 
the number of house plants. 

2. Many greenhouse plants, including roses, carnations, geraniums, 
chrysanthemums, fuchsias, begonias, and the like are propagated 
in this way. 

3. This method of propaga- 
tion can be employed in 
the winter time under 
glass. 

4. Near the large cities the 
propagation of ornament- 
al plants for use on lawns 
or in parks, yards, and 
gardens, has become an 
important and remunera- 
tive business. 

Exercise 6. 

1. Object; To show soft- 
wood cuttings. 

2. Method: 

a. Make a frame 15 to 
20 inches wide, 8 
inches high at one 
side, 12 inches high 
at the other ; long as 
the width of the 

window ; tight bot- ms. 35, Frame to show rooting cuttings. 




MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



59 



torn ; 3 or 4 one-half inch holes in the bottom. 

b. Depth of the sand to be used in the propagation bed varies 
with the plants to be propagated, but usually an inch of 
broken stone or coarse gravel overlaid with 21/2 to 3 inches of 
sand will be found amply sufficient for all soft-wood cuttings. 

e. A confined atmosphere over the tops is especially required in 
propagating plants, which have leaves that are thin and lia- 
ble to wilt easily ; also for herbaceous cuttings which require 
a long period in which to form roots ; and those from soft- 
wood which suffer from exposure. 

d. Such a close atmosphere can be secured by means of a sash 
supported by a tight frame. 

e. The simplest device for use in a small way is the bell glass. 

f. Single cuttings may be covered with 
inverted glass jars. 

g. If the trouble known as "damping 
off" develops in connection with this 
work, the sand should be removed, the 
inside of the box or frame should be 
scrubbed and white-washed, and fresh 
sand should be put in. 

c. Leaf cutting's. 

1. Some plants may be propagated by inserting 
the edge of a leaf or even a piece of a leaf 
in sand and supplying it with moisture. 

2. Plants will spring up at the broken edges 
of the leaf or at cut places in the veins. 

Exercise 7. 

1. Object: To show leaf cuttings. 

2. Method: 

a. Take most any very fleshy leaf, prefer- 
able one of a begonia, and peg down upon 
moist sand. 

b. Use toothpicks and peg down across the 
main veins being sure to break the veins. 

c. Bury the base of the leaf in the soil. 




part 



Leaf cutting; 
of leaf. 




Mg. 37, Leaf cutting; whole leaf. 

d. In a little while roots will be thrown out at the cut ends of the 
veins and new plants will form. 



60 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 




d. Stem cutting's. 
Exercise 8. 

1. Object: To show stem cut- 
tings. 

2. Method: 

a. Use thrifty shoots from 
the growing rose, geran- 
ium, coleus, tomato, nas- 
turtium, potato, etc. 

b. Divide these shoots into 
cuttings having at least 
two nodes each, letting 
the lower cut be through 
the stem just below the 
lower node. 

c. Reduce the leaf surface to 
check evaporation by re- 
moving the leaves of the 

lower half of the cutting. ^i^- 3S, stem cutting or "slip" of coleus. 

d. Insert the cuttings in the soil to about one-half their depth and 
firm the soil around them. 

e. Plant one inch apart each way. 

f. Keep uniformly moist and when the roots are about an inch 
long transplant to larger quarters. 

e. Root cutting's. 
Exercise 9. 

1. Object: To show root cuttings, 
a. Explain where the roots started. 

2. Methods: 

a. All plants which sprout from the roots may be 
propagated by means of root cuttings. ' !' 

b. Examples of these are horse-radish, rhubarb, ;= 
blackberries, quince, sweet potatoes, etc. ?it ; 

e. Make cuttings from the roots two to three inches ■■'{'. 
long, planting horizontally, close together and 

cover with two or three inches of soil. , ^ ■;; 

d. Most of these do best when started with bottom , . . ■- 

heat. jTig-. 39, shows 

GRAFTING. ^oots and buas 

^ T» • • 1 propagated from 

1. Principles. a root cutting. 

a. The cambium layer of the graft must coincide with that of the 
stock in at least one place. 

b. A moderate pressure must be provided for this union to take 
place. 

c. All exposed surfaces must be protected by some means of cov- 
ering. 

d. Grafting, unlike budding, is usually performed during the dor- 
mant period of growth, generally in the spring. 

e. It is accomplished by carefully fitting a small dormant twig or 
scion of the variety we wish to propagate into a cut in a stock, 
or seedling tree which we wish to change. 

f. There are several forms of grafting, but they differ more in 





MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 61 

method than in results, in fact, so far as the top of the tree is 

concerned the results are the same in all cases whether we bud 

or graft. 
g. The object sought is to change an undesirable or uncertain 

tree into one which we know will produce a variety whose fruit 

will possess certain desirable characteristics. 
h. The scion and its treatment. Fig 40. 

1. A scion is a portion cut from a plant to be 
inserted upon another (or the same) plant 
with the intention that it will grow. 

2. Point out the scion and stock in Fig. 40. ..^is- f, cross sec- 

. . . ° - tion of stock and 

d. Jiixplam how the scion is put into the stock, scion. 

4. Except for herbaceous grafting the wood for scions should 
be taken while in a dormant or resting condition. 

5. The time usually considered best is after the leaves have 
fallen, but before severe freezing bgins. 

6. The scions are tied in bunches and buried in moist sand, 
where they will not freeze and yet will be kept cold enough 
to prevent growth. 

7. Good results often follow cutting scions in the spring just be- 
fore or at the time the grafting is to be done. 

8. If cleft grafting is the style to be employed, this practice fre- 
quently gives good results, but spring cutting of scions for 
whip grafting is not desirable, as not enough time is given 
for the proper healing of the wound before planting time in 
the spring. 

i. The stock and its treatment. 

1. The stock is the plant or part of a plant upon which or into 
which the bud or scion is inserted. 

2. For best results in grafting it is essential that the stock be 
in an active condition, or so that active growth can be 
quickly brought about. 

2. Kinds of grafting. 

a. Splice grafting-. 

Exercise 10. 

1. Object: To show splice grafting. 

2. Method: 

a. This is a simple form of grafting. 

b. It is used when the stock and scion are very nearly the same size. 

c. It consists in splicing or lapping the scion on the stock by 
scarfing each at the same angle. 

d. When a close joint is secured the parts are held in place by 
means of some kind of wrapping material. 

b. Tongue grafting. 

Exercise 11. 

1. Object : To -show tongue grafting. 

2. Method: 

a. This form differs from splice grafting in that both scion and 
stock are split at corresponding points on the scarf with a thin- 
bladed knife so as to form tongues. 

b. The object of this is to unite more firmly the two portions and 



62 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



present a larger surface for the effusion of cell tissue, and to 
promote the callousing process. 
c. This is the method commonly practiced by nurserymen under 
the name of root grafting. 

Exercise 12. 

1. Object: To show how sap travels up the stem. 

2. Method: 

a. Color a glass of water with a good quality of red ink. 

b. Place some cuttings of live branches of maple or willow in this 
water over night. 

c. The next day split one of the branches and notice how the col- 
ored fluid has been drawn into and up these stems. 

d. Has it traveled upward in the bark, sapwood, or heartwood? 

e. What value is it to know that sap travels up the stem ? 

c. Cleft grafting. 
1. Top working-. 

a. Many trees, which did not come true to name and many varie- 
ties which are worthless may be made into popular varieties by 
top working 




f- 



It takes about four 
years for the top- 
worked tree to grow as 
large as it originally 
was. 

c. Cut off the whole top 
of the tree. 

d. The argument that the 
grafting should run 
through a whole num- 
ber of years is fallible. 
Fig. 41. 

e. If the old tree stock 
has been headed-in low, 
then you can use the 
scaffold limbs for the 
foundation upon which 
to put the scions. 

f. If the tree has been 
headed high, then cut 
off the whole top not 
higher than two feet 
from the ground. 

g. Do not try to top-work 
a tree that has a de- 
cayed trunk. 

h. The time of top-working is in the spring extending from when 
the sap begins to ascend until early summer. 

i. The scion should be dormant. 

j. As the scion will grow rapidly, it is necessary that severe treat- 
ment be Used to encourage lateral growths. 

k. Severe thinning out should also be practiced. 




shows transcendent crab 
(Paddock and Whipple). 



rrafted to 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



63 




Fig. 42. Grafting- tool inserted 
the stock. 



2. Principles. 

a. This style of graft is particularly adapted to 
large trees when for any reason it becomes neces- 
sary to change the variety. 

b. Branches too large to be worked 
by other methods can be cleft 
grafted. 

e. Split the exposed end of the stock 
with a broad chisel or grafting 
tool. Fig. 42. 

d. The scion should consist of a por- 
tion of the previous season's 
growth, and should be 
long enough to have 
two or three buds. 

e. In general, it is a good 
plan to cut the scion 
so that the lowest bud 
will come just at the 
top of this wedge, so 
that in will be hear the 
top of the stock. 

f. If the proper pressure 
of the cleft be not suf- 
ficient to hold the scion 
in place, it must be 
wrapped with cloth or 
strings before waxing. 

g. The stock and scion 
are now ready for the 
grafting wax, which 
may be applied, 
whether in liquid form 
with a brush or in 
plastic condition after 
having been worked 
with the hands, or they 
may be wrapped with 
strips of muslin or 
manila paper previous- 
ly spread with wax, as 
heretofore mentioned. 

h. Great care should be taken to make every joint air tight or the 
operation may be a failure. 




Fig. 
latei-. 



43, shows the same as Fig. 41 one year 
(Paddock and Whipple.) 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



Object 

ing. 

a. Study Fig. 44 

1 

2 



Exercise 13. 

To show cleft graft- 




jMg-. 44. Cleft grafting: a, scion; b, scions 
inserted in cleft. 



Find the scion stock. 
Note the buds, where lo- 
cated. 
3. How is the scion put into 
the stock? 
Method : 

a. Should the limbs be no more 
than one to one and one- 
half inches in diameter, sev- 
er with a saw, being careful 
that the bark is not injured. 

b. Split the exposed end with a 
broad chisel or grafting tool 
and then with a wedge 
spread the cleft so that the 
scion may be inserted. 

c. The scion should be cut wedge shape and outer edge thicker 
than the other. 

d. The growing tissues of both scion and stock should have inti- 
mate contact. 

e. Use two scions for each stock, inserting them each into the cleft 
and inclining them at a slight angle, as this gives a closer and 
surer contact between the cambium layers. 

f. Take out the wedge, 
being sure that the 
scions are not dis- 
lodged. 

g. Cover all the exposed 
portions with grafting 
wax. 
d. Bark grafting. 

1. A branch is sawed off, as 
for cleft grafting, and 
the scions, instead of be- 
ing inserted in a cleft, are 
cut very thin and slipped 
between the bark and 
wood, being inserted far 
enough to bring the grow- 
ing parts together. 

2. The bark is then securely 
bound and wax is used as 
in cleft grafting. 

3. This is called crown 
grafting by the English 
and French. 

4. It is an excellent method ^ „ „ ^ ^ .... 

r, f... 1 T 1 i'lg- 45. Shows a well-formed grafted tree, 

tor grafting larger limbs, (Paddock and Whipple.) 




MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 65 

as it injures the stock less than cleft grafting and is easier per- 
formed, and also more scions may be inserted per limb. 

Exercise 14. 

1. Object: To show bark grafting. 

2. Method: 

a. Cut off the tree where you desire to top-work it. 

b. Cut a vertical line through the bark of the stock about one inch 
long. 

c. Cut the scion on a bevel (not on a wedge) so that it is very thin. 

d. Insert the scion between the bark of the stock and the crown. 

e. Put in several scions this way in the same stub. 

f. Wax all the exposed surface and wrap a tight bandage around 
the base of the scions and the top of the stock in order to hold 
the scions close until they unite. 

g. The subsequent treatment is the same as for the cleft grafting. 

e. Saddle grafting. 

1. The stock is cut to a wedge-shape and the lower end of the scion is 
split and set upon the wedge, the place of union being tied and 
waxed. 

2. This is for small limbs and nursery stock. 

f . Veneer grafting. 

1. The tip of the stock is removed with an abrupt slanting cut. 

2. Then beginning at the highest portion of the top of the stock, cut 
a shaving which is thickest at its base, and which can only be re- 
moved by a sloping cut. 

3. Cut the lower end of the scion in like manner and bind the two 
firmly together with waxed string. 

4. When this style of graft is used as a root graft, no wax is neces- 
sary, but when used above ground the wound should be well 
covered. 

5. This method of grafting is adapted to use in either summer or 
winter. 

g. Side grafting. 

1. The scion is cut wedge-shaped, as for cleft grafting, a chisel or a 
thick knife blade is forced into the stock, and the wedge of the 
scion is then forced into the incision. 

2. Waxed string and wax are then used. 

h. Shield grafting or scion budding. 
1. The scion is cut very thin as in bark grafting, and is inserted un- 
der the bark of the stock as a bud is inserted in the process of bud- 
ding and is firmly bound in place with waxed cord or raffia, 
i. Whip or root grafting. 

1. This style is called root grafting when the scion is grafted on the 
root and is the method practiced by nurserymen. 

2. Thrifty 1 to 2-year-old stocks grown from seed are taken up in 
the fall and stored in a cellar or buried in the soil, where they will 
keep fresh and be accessible at any time in the winter when 
wanted. 

3. The scions having been secured in the fall, the work of grafting 
may be performed at any time during the winter. 

4. The roots only are used in this method, and they may be cut into 



66 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUEE 



two or more sections, according to their size and length or the 
desire of the propagator. 

5. But the larger or stronger roots, as a rule, may be relied upon for 
the most satisfactory results. 

6. The scions may be cut much longer and the roots may be cut 
shorter and the graft planted so deep as to cause the roots to issue 
from the lower end of the scions. 

7. When taken up to set in the orchard, the original root may be re- 
moved entirely, leaving nothing but the scion and the roots which 
have put forth from it. 

8. When roots are cut into lengths of 2 to 6 inches to be used as 
stocks, the operation is called piece root. 

9. In piece root grafting, the entire root is cut up into pieces, three or 
four inches long, thus furnishing material for two or three grafts. 

Exercise 15. 

1, Object: To show root grafting. 

2. Method: 

a. By holding the stock or scion 
in the left hand, with the end 
supported by the index finger, 
a diagonal cut through the 
base of the scion or top of the 
stock may be made. 

b. Holding the wood in the same 
position, cut from one-third of 
the length from the outer end 
of this cut, making a vertical 
slit about an inch long. 

c. After the scion and stock are 
both thus prepared, carefully 
insert the tongue of the one 
into the slit of the other in 
such a manner as to bring the 
cambium layer of the scion in 
direct contact with that of the stock. 

d. It is not necessary that the scion and stock be of the same size. 

e. More depends upon the smoothness of the cuts and the snugness 
of their fitting together than upon anything else. 

f. Wrap, so that the cut faces are kept in close contact, with No. 
18 knitting cotton which has been previously dipped into graft- 
ing wax. 

g. The wrapping need not be over a foot in length. 

h. When the graft is finished, it will be about one foot long. 

i. The grafts should be tied in bundles and packed in sawdust or 

leaf-mold until planting time, 
j. At the point of union, little swollen Mmps (callouses) should 

start to force a union 
k. The callouses may be hastened by putting the box of grafts in a 

warm room. 

10. After-culture of root grafts. 

a. When the operation has been performed, the grafts are packed 




Pig. 46, Shows root grafting; a, the 
stock; b, the scion; c, stock and scion 
united. 



MANUAL OF HOETICULTURE 67 

away in moss, sawdust, or sand, in a cool cellar, to remain until 
spring. 

b. It is important that the place of storage should be cool, else the 
grafts may start into growth, and be ruined, or heating and rot- 
ting occur. 

c. If the temperature is kept low, not above 40° F., there will be 
no growth except callousing, and the knitting together of stock 
and scion. 

d. This callousing must be commenced before the stocks are 
planted in the spring for it will not take place in the damp soil. 

e. In ordinary propagation by means of whip grafts, the scion is 
cut with about three buds, and the stock nearly as long as the 
scion. 

f. The ground in which the grafts are planted should be plowed 
deep and very thoroughly pulverized. 

g. The root grafts should be planted about four to six inches apart 
in the row and the rows three and one-half to four feet apart. 

h. Be sure to press the soil firmly around the roots. 
i. They should be planted deep enough so that but one bud ap- 
pears above the ground, 
j. Every effort should be centered upon making the grafts grow, 
k. The best treatment for this is to cultivate, often, deeply and 

thoroughly. 
1. No danger of overdoing the cultivation, 
m. Results. 

1. As the plants grow they will first form, as a rule, one upright 
leader, 

2. If more than one leader starts, trim to one leader. 

3. Later, at the axil of each leaf, a lateral branch will start. 

4. Rub the lateral off, but do not rub any leaves off. 

5. From now on, it will necessitate someone going over the stock 
every two weeks to rub off the laterals. 

6. Under no consideration let the laterals remain. 

7. If you rub off the leaves, the plant will not grow so fast and 
it will also be very spindling. 

8. At the end of the season you will have one-year-old nursery 
stock, the best kind to plant for an orchard. 

9. Of course, there will be some very small trees in the nursery 
rows. 

10. These may be kept for the second year. 
0. If this is done, in the next spring, cut them back to one strong 
bud above the graft and let them grow, treating them subse- 
quently as if they were the other grafts. 

BUDDING. 

Budding is meant to take the bud from the plant which one desires 
to grow and to insert it into the bark of some allied specie plant 
in which it is to grow. 

, This must be done when the bark peels easily in the spring and to 
early fall. 

, This operation consists in removing a bud from a twig of the vari- 
ety which we wish to propagate and inserting it beneath the bark 



68 



JNIANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



of the stock or young seedling tree we wish to change ; and this is 
then held in place by tying it fast until the bud and stock unite. 

4. The expense of the operation is, therefore, not more 
than that of whip grafting, although the work has usu- 
ally to be done in July, August, or early September. 

5. The bud. 

a. The bud should be taken from wood of the present 
season's growth, and in a good state of maturity. 

b. Since the work of budding is done during the sea- 
son of active growth, the bud sticks are prepared so 
that the petiole or stem or each leaf is left attached 
to serve as a handle to aid in pushing the bud in 
place when inserting it beneath the bark of the 
stock. 

c. This is what is usually called a shield bud and is cut 
so that a small portion of the woody tissue of the 
branch is removed with the bud. 

6. The stock. 

a. The stock for budding should be at least as thick 
as an ordinary lead pencil, and in a healthy growing 
condition. 

b. With the apple and pear a second season's growth 
will be necessary to develop this size, while with the M 
peach a single season will suffice ; hence peach stocks pig. 47, a 
can be budded the same season the pits are planted. t.ud stick. 

c. Consequently the peach is left until as late in the season as is 
practicable in order to obtain stocks of suitable size. 

7. June budding". 

a. If it is desired to start the bud into growth the same season it is 
inserted, the budding should be done as early in the season as 
well-developed buds can be obtained from growing trees. 

b. As soon as it is found that the bud has united with the stock or 
branch, the material used to fasten the bud in place must be re- 
moved and the stock or branch cut back to within a short dis- 
tance from the bud, to force the growth of the inserted bud. 

8. Late fall budding. 

a. This is the kind of budding more commonly practiced among 
nurserymen, the buds being inserted into the stock as late in the 
season as the bark of the stock will separate freely to receive it. 

b. In such instances the bud remains dormant through the follow- 
ing winter. 

c. The following spring, the wrapping is removed and wherever 
the buds appear sound, the tops of the stocks are cut back and 
treated in the same manner as described for June budding. 

d. All buds on the stocks below the one inserted should be rubbed 
off as they start to grow. 

e. The objection to early, or June budding, is that the growth from 
such buds does not alM^ays mature sufficiently in northern sec- 
tions to pass a severely cold winter without injury. 

Exercise 16. 

1. Object: To show budding. 

2. Method: 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 




Fig. 48, Cutting- the bud. 




Fig. 49, Budding: Preparing the stock. 



a. The strongest twigs of last year's growth should be se- 
lected while dormant and stored away in boxes of green 
sawdust or moist sand until the stock is in condition for 
inserting the buds. 

b. The stock best suited for this work is one year old seed- 
lings. 

c. It should be used as soon as the bark will slip upon it ; or 
as soon as the sap begins to rapidly ascend in the spring, or 
early summer. 

d. The stock is prepared by making two incisions in the bark, 
one at right angles to the other, thus forming a T-shaped 
cut. 

e. Make the cut on the north side for protection from the sun. 

f. The bud is prepared by cutting off about one inch of bark 
and wood, paring off a small portion of the woody tissue 
with the bud. 






Fig. 50, Budding: a, Inserting the bud; b, tying; c, cutting off the top. 



70 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

h. Loosen the flaps of the T-shaped cut on the stock and 

insert the bud under the flaps and push it firmly in place 

until its cut surface is entirely in contact with the peeled 

body of the stock, 
i. Wrap with moist rafSa, or bands of wrapping cotton about 

ten to twelve inches long, above and below the bud. 
j. As soon. as the bud has united with the stock, which ought 

to be done in ten days, cut the ligature to prevent girdling, 
k. This done, the operation is finished until the next spring, 

when all the trees in which the buds have "taken" should 

have the top cut off just above the bud. 

Formulas for Grafting Wax. 

1, Formula No. 1 for outdoor work. 

a. Resin 4 to 5 parts, beeswax li/^ to 2 parts, linseed oil or tallow, 
1 to 1% parts. 

b. This is melted in a mass, and when cool enough it may be drawn 
out into thin strips and applied by wrapping it firmly around the 
stock where the scion is inserted. 

c. A more convenient mode of using this wax is to spread it while 
melted upon thin muslin or strong manila paper and when cool, 
cut or tear in strips of convenient width for wrapping around 
the grafted stock. 

d. When the wax is applied it should be melted but not hot enough 
to cook the tissue of the plant. 

e. The wax should be carefully spread over all cut. or exposed sur- 
faces and pressed closely so that it will form a sleek coating 
which will exclude air and moisture. 

f. Note: 

1. Waxed string may be prepared by dropping a ball of No. 18 
cotton into a kettle of the above melted wax. 

2. In a few minutes, it will be thoroughly saturated, after which 
it may be taken out. 

8. It will remain in this condition indefinitely. 

2. Formula No. 2 for indoor and outdoor work. 

a. Resin 6 pounds, beeswax 1 pound, linseed oil 1 pint. 

b. Melt together, and when at the temperature of 180° F. apply 
directly to the joints with a small bristle brush. 

e. In order to keep it at the proper consistency the vessel contain- 
ing the wax may be placed in another vessel containing boiling 
water. .,. 

LAYER. 

1. This is the common method of reproducing the strawberry, dew- 
berry, black raspberry, etc. 

Exercise 17. 

1. Object: To show simple layering. 

2. Method: 



aiANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



71 




a. Bend down one of 
the lower shoots, 
placing it in a 
small depression 
and pegging it 
down with a 
forked stick, and 
covering with a 
few inches of mel- 
low soil. 

b. If the soil has Fig. 51, Tip layering. 

been moist enough, roots will have started from each new 
node which has been covered up and a new plant may be se- 
cured by separating the new plant from the old. 

Exercise 18. 

1. Object: To show mound layering. 

2. Method: 

a. The old plant is 
first cut off near 
the surface of the 
ground, before 
growth begins in 

•SniJds QV[% 

b. By the following 
spring many 
shoots will have 
grown from the 
"stool." 

e. Next the stool or 
base of these 
shoots are mound- 
ed up with dirt 
for several inches. 

d. Roots will form at the underground nodes of these, the same 
summer as they are mounded up. 

e. In fall or the following spring, the newly rooted shoots may 
be removed from the stool and planted as new plants. 

f. The old stool may be used to produce more plants the ensu- 
ing year. 

Exercise 19. 

1. Object : To show vine layering. 

2. Method: 

a. Stretch a vine along the ground, burying its entire length in 
a shallow trench or covering it in certain places, leaving the 
remaining portion exposed. 

b. Roots will be put forth at intervals and branches thrown up. 

c. Later- cut the vine between these, leaving a number of inde- 
pendent plants. 

d. Grape and ivies may be readily propagated in this way. 




'^'llSr'' 



"':t 



Fig. 52, Mound layering. 



72 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 




Fig. 53, Vine layering. 

PLANT STUDY. 

1. Treatment of seeds by stratification. 

a. The simplest and most common method pursued by the agricul- 
turist is to prepare the soil and place in it the seeds of the 
future crop just where they are expected to grow and produce 
mature plants. 




Fig. 54, Shows a good seed tester. 

b. This is the method employed in growing cereals, cotton, most 
forage crops, and many truck and garden crops as well as orna- 
mental plants. 

e. With many cultivated plants, however, the seeds are planted in 
cold frames, hotbed or greenhouse, and the plants on reaching 
proper size are transplanted to field or garden. 

d. Nearly all orchard trees come from seeds originally planted in 
nursery beds, and later, after being budded or grafted, trans- 
planted to the orchard. 

e. They are, in fact, usually transplanted one or more times before 
being finally put out in the orchard. 

Method : 

a. Note carefully the outer coating of a number of different seeds, 
such as peas, corn, onions, beans, squashes, canna, locust, apples, 
peaches, plums, maples, catalpas, etc. 

b. Most hard shelled seeds are shed in the fall so that they may lay 
in the litter and be frosted open. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUHE 73 

e. Those which hang on the tree all winter and fall, in the spring 
are usually seeds of soft texture and those which are not able 
to stand the rain without decaying. 

3. The process of germination by stratification. 

a. Place layers of seeds alternating with layers of sand in a box. 

b. The box is buried, sheltered or covered with leaves or straw, to 
the depth of one foot. 

c. The covering of the seed is softened and decays. 

d. Freezing is beneficial, but alternate freezing and thawing are 
destructive to most seeds. 

e. Seeds should not be exposed to wind or sun. 

f. Seeds may be stratified in pits and covered with sod. 

4. Germination of seeds. 

Exercise 20. 
1. Object : To study the effect of stratification upon the germina- 
tion of seeds. 

2. Method: 

a. In October or November take the seeds collected during the 
summer and place them in a shallow box which has previous- 
ly had an inch or more of sand, leaf -mold, or even garden soil, 
placed in the bottom of it. 

b. Put on the seeds, then, a thin layer of sand, etc. 

c. Then add another layer of seeds. 

d. Then sand alternating until the box is full. 

e. Sink the box in the ground in some shady place, leaving un- 
covered to the action of the snow, rain and frost. 

f. When the weather permits, plant in rows in well prepared 
soil. 

3. Note : Seeds require heat, moisture and air. 

Exercise 21. 
1. Second method: 

a. Should the seeds be procured too late in the year to stratify — 

b. They may be treated in another equally effective but slower 
way. 

c. Such seeds as those of the peach, plum, or eannas, may be 
made to sprout right away by filing them into the meat with 
a file. 

d. Care should be taken that the embryo is not injured, 
d. See first method. 

Exercise 22. 

1. Object : To germinate fine seeds. 

2. Method: 

a. Seeds should be placed in shallow boxes about four inches 
deep. 

b. Fill these with soil made up of equal parts of garden loam, 
leaf mould and sand. 

c. "Well-r'otted manure may be used in the place of leaf -mould. 

d. Sow seeds on the surface of the soil pressing them in by the 
palm of the hand. 

e. Cover with a cloth, laying it flat on the. surf ace of the soil. 

f. Sprinkle abundantly with water. 



74 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

g. Cover with window glass, providing for the admission of air. 
h. As soon as they have sprouted remove the cloth, and as soon 

as the true leaves appear transplant into more spacious 

quarters. 

Exercise 23. 

1. Object: To store acorns, nuts or seeds for spring planting. 

2. Method: 

a. Gather a quart or more of acorns, nuts or seeds. 

b. Spread them out on a dirt floor in a cellar or shed for two or 
three weeks to dry, 

c. Then prepare a pit, on some well-drained spot, in which to 
store them. 

d. Make the pit about 14 inches deep and 10 to 12 inches square. 

e. Line the sides and bottom of the pit with boards or sink a 
bos of the proper size into the hole, to keep out mice and 
squirrels. 

f. Cover the bottom with a layer of clean sand 2 or 3 inches deep. 

g. Spread a layer of nuts on this, then another layer of sand, 
and so on until all the nuts are stored. 

h. Then cover the hole with earth to a depth of from 4 to 6 
inches and see that it is well heaped up and rounded so as to 
drain off all water. 

i. When the ground is ready for planting in the spring, remove 
the nuts from the pit and plant them immediately. 

Exercise 24. 

1. Object : To test the vitality of seeds. 

2. Method: 

a. Gather a quantity of small seeds. 

b. Count out from 50 to 100 seeds and place them on a plate be- 
tween two sheets of moist blotting paper. 

c. Record on a slip of paper the number and species of the seeds, 
with the date on which the test is begun. 

d. Place this slip on the edge of the plate, so it will not get lost 
or separated from the seeds it represents. 

e. Cover the whole with another plate or pane of glass. 

f. Keep in a warm room, in which the temperature is not less 
than 68°. 

g. Keep the blotting paper moist, but not saturated. 

h. Examine the seeds every day until all have had time to germ- 
inate. 

i. This may take two weeks or even longer. 

j. When the seeds are well sprouted, count out those which 
failed to germinate and from this determine the percentage 
of good seeds. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



75 



ORGANS OF VEGETATION. 



I. Roots 

1. Forms. 

a. Primary. 

b. Secondary. 

2. Structure, 
a. Magnified section, Fig. 55. 

1. a, cortex. 

2. b, central cylinder. 

3. e, endodermis. 

4. h, hair roots. 

5. ep, epidermis. 

6. sp, cut ends of the ducts 

7. Medullary ray. 

8. Vascular cylinder. 




b. 



Fig. 55, Section of a root. (Andrew's 
Botany.) 

Study the cross-section of a root and point out the structural 

parts. '! 

Kind. 

Tap-roots. 

Fibrous. 

Adventitious. 

"Water roots. 

Haustoria. 

Aerial roots. 

Collect the different kinds of roots. '/^ 

Adaptability of roots. 

a. Adapted to soil. 

b. Adapted to water, 
e. Adapted to air. 

d. Adapted to parasite habits. 
Function. ^ 
a. Holding plants. ^i 

Storage of foods. Fig-. 57, Branched tap-root. 

Absorption. (Andrew's Botany.) 

Secretion. 
Conveyance. 

6. Effect of soil on roots. 

7. Effect of tillage on roots. 

8. Questions, 
a. "What is the use of pits in central cyl- 
inders ? 

What is the use of bundles ? 
What are the uses of hair roots ? 
What is the use of the epidermis? 

e. What effect on the plant, if any or all 
parts of the plant are injured? 

Absorption power of roots. 

a. Osmosis. 
Form of diffusion. 
Absorption. 




b. 
e. 
d. 
e. 



b. 
c. 
d. 




Fig-. 56, Fibrous root. 
(Andrew's Botany.) 



3. Principles. 



76 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



a. Thinner and lighter liquids flow more rapidly into denser and 
heavier than the latter would into the former. 

b. The flow depends upon density. 

c. Solutions of crystalled substance diffuse more rapidly. 

d. Albuminous substance slower. 

e. Explain the pumping power of roots. 

Exercise 25. 

1. Object: To demonstrate the passage of solutions 
through tissues, animal or vegetable. 

2. Method: 

a. Pick away the shell at the large end of an egg. 

b. Pierce a small hole through the opposite end 
of an egg. 

e. Place the glass tube over the hole and fasten 
with sealing wax. 

d. Place the egg in a glass of water so that the 
membrane is in contact with the water. 

e. Let stand for several hours. 

f . Note results. 

3. Questions. 

a. Will starch, albumen, olive oil, sugar and salt 
diffuse through partition? 

b. What is diffusion? 

c. What is a dialysis? 

Exercise 26. 

1. Object: See exercise 25. 

2. Method: 

a. Tie a piece of moistened bladder over the end 
of tube A, as shown at B. 

b. Fill tube partly with molasses. 

c. Fill bottle partly full of water. 

d. Arrange tube as indicated in Fig. 59. 
6. Note: 

1. Exercises 25 and 26 show how water, 
laden with plant food enters the plant 
through the hair roots. 

2. Give results of both exercises. 

Exercise 27. 

1. Object: To show that plants get food from 
the soil. 

2. Method: 

a. Burn all vegetable matter out of the sand. 

b. Fill tin cans with sand. 

c. Plant in each five beans which have been 
soaked over night. 

d. Water both cans as indicated and set ini 
a warm place. 

e. Water one can with rain water when 
needed. 




Fig. 



Shows osmosis. 




Shows osmosis 
bladder mem- 



MANUAI. OF HORTICULTURE 



77 



f. Water the one with soil solution which is made by mixing rich 
soil with water, making a thick slop, then strain off some of the 
water using muslin or cheese-cloth. 

g. Continue to water each can for five weeks. 
3. Questions. 

a. What makes the difference in growth? 

b. How is plant food dissolved in the soil ? 
10. References. 

a. Any Botany. 

b. Nursery Book by Bailey. 

c. Fruit Growing by Bailey. 

d. Fruit Growing by Paddock and Whipple. 

2. Stems. 
1. Classification. 

a. Duration. 4. 

1. Annuals. ■ 5. 

2. Biennials. 6. 

3. Perennials. 

b. Position. 

1. Erect. 

2. Prostrate. 

3. Root climbers. 11. 
2 Type of stems. 

a. Endogenous signifying to grow inwardly. 

b. Exogenous signifying to grow outwardly. 



Tendril climber. 
Twining climber. 
Inclined. 

7. Declined. 

8. Underground. 

9. Functions. 
10. Relation to light. 

Relation to air. 





Fig-. 60, Cross section of twig. 

(Andrew's Botany.) Fig. 61, Cross section of a twig 

years old. (Andrew's Botany.) 

1. 6, Epidermis or bark. 

2. c, Cortex. 

a. Soft bast. 

b. Lenticels. 

3. Cambium layer. 

a. Produces wood-cells and ducts on the in side. 

b. Produces new layers of bark on the outside. 

4. Woody vascular cylinder (w). 

a. Annular rings. 

b. Medullary rays. 

5. p, Pith. 

c. Study Fig. 61 — shows stem three years old. 



three 



78 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



1. m, Shows the radiating lines which cross the 
vascular region (w) to the cortex (c). 

2. The pith is obvious only in young stems. 
d. Study the rings in Fig. 62. 

1. Number of rings. 

2. Number at top. 

3. How do rings join with limbs? 
4. Do the number of rings determine the age 

of the tree ? 

3. Modification, 

a. Stems as foliage. 

b. Stems as weapon. 

c. Stems as storage. 

1. Fills office of leaf. 

2. Fills office of stalk. 

3. Fills office of water reservoir. 

d. Underground stem. 

1. Storage of nourishment. 

2. Storage of moisture. 

3. Preventing evaporation. 
6. Eootstocks. 

f. Tuber, illustrate. 

g. Bulb, illustrate. 

4. Functions. 

a. Support framework of the plant. 

b. Binds the different organs together. 

c. Brings organs in right relation with 
light and air. 

d. Storage of food. 

e. Conveys sap from roots to other parts 
of the plant. 

5. Circulation of sap. 

a. Upward movement. 
1. Through ducts in woody portion of 

the stem. 

b. Downward movement of plant food in 

sap. 
1. Through soft blast of the cortical 
layers. 

c. Transpiration of leaves. 

1. Causes sap to flow to leaves. 

2. Causes osmotic flow. 

d. Causes. 

1. Pumping power of the roots, 

2. Suction power of the leaves. 

3. Capillary attraction. 

6. Ringing- fruit trees. 

a. Effect on food above the ring? 

b. Effect on food below the ring? 

c. Effect on fruit ? 

d. Gives borers a better chance to work. 

e. Effect of driving nails into plum and peach trees ? 




Fig. 
growth 
tyledon. 
Botany.) 




Fig. 



63, Showing 
movement of sap. 

(Andrews' Botany.) 



general 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 79 

Exercise 28. 

1. Object : To show that water circulates in the plant. 

2. Method: 

a. Fill a tumbler about one-third full of lukewarm water, col- 
ored with red ink. 

b. Place a cut stem of soft green plant in the tumbler. 

c. In a short time the colored water will rise through the stem 
or twig and may be seen distributed in the veinlike patterns 
through the petals of the flower or the leaves. 

Exercise 29. 

1. Object: To show the effect of girdling on the tree. 

2. Method: 

a. Early in the spring remove a strip of bark 2 inches wide 
around the trunk of the tree, leaving the wood entirely ex- 
posed. 

b. Be sure to cut through the inner bark so as to leave none of 
it connecting the bark above the girdle to that below. 

c. Watch the effect on the tree. 

d. Does it show signs of injury immediately or not until late in 
the summer or the next spring ? 

e. "What is the result eventually? 

f. Explain. 

3. Note : Select some tree which is to be cut down. 

a. Do not try it on a good tree. 

b. Try on one or two minor branches of an unprofitable tree. 
Make a collection of the different kind of stems. 







Leaf. 




1. 


.Form of leaf. 


5. 


Shape of base. 




a. Simple. 




a. Rounded. 




b. Compound. 




b. Tapering 


2. 


Parts of leaf. 




c. Cordate. 




a. Blade. 




d. Truncate. 




b. Petiole. 


6. 


Shape of apex. 




c. Stipules. 




a. Obtuse. 


3. 


Venation of leaves. 




b. Acute. 




a. Vascular tissue. 




c. Acuminate. 




b. Midrib. 




d. Truncate. 




1. Primary. 


7. 


Shape of margin. 




2. Secondary. 




a. Entire. 




c. Classes. 




b.; Undulate. 




1. Nettled. 




e. Serrate. 




2. Paralleled. 




d. Dentate. 




3. Forked. 




e. Crenate. 


4. 


Shape of leaves. 

a. Name of nine shapes. 




f. Lobed. 



Exercise 30. 

1. Object: To make leaf prints for laboratory study. 

2. Apparatus: Large, smooth slate or thick glass 10x12 inches; 
tube of printer's ink; two six-inch rubber rollers; sheets of 
good quality white paper. 

3. Method: 

a. Squeeze a few drops of the printer's ink from the tube upon. 



80 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

the glass or slate and spread it about with the roller until 
there is a thin, smooth coat of ink both upon the slate and 
upon the roller. 

b. The ink should never be so thin that it will "run" since it 
will not then produce a good, clear print. 

c. Now place the leaf on the inky surface of the glass and roll 
it once or twice on the upper side with the inky roller, until 
both surfaces of the leaf are well inked. 

d. Lay the inked leaf upon a sheet of smooth white paper and 
cover it carefully with another sheet. 

e. Take the clean roller and roll it once only, bearing on it hard. 

f. An impression of the leaf will be made on both the upper and 
lower sheets of the paper. 

4. Note: 

a. This exercise may be amplified and made much more interest- 
ing by using oil colors, which may be brushed lightly over 
the lower side of the leaf, then press upon them by a roller. 

b. The impression on paper is then made by rolling the ' ' paint- 
ed ' ' leaf with a clean roller on white paper as in the printer 's 
ink process. 

c. The lower side of the leaf gives a better print, with this pro- 
cess, than the upper. 

d. The colors used should be arranged just as they appear in the 
leaf itself. 

8. Arrangements. 

a. Opposite. 

b. Whorled. 

c. Alternate. 

9. Structure. 

a. Upper epidermis. 

b. Inter-structure. 

1. Chlorophyll. 

2. Air spaces. 

c. Lower epidermis. 
1. Stomata. 

Functions of the Leaves. 
1. Transpiration. 

Exercise 31. 

1. Object: To show that plants give off moisture through their 
leaves. 

2. Method: 

a. Fill one tumbler with water. 

b. Place a piece of cardboard over the tumbler. 

c. Put the petiole through the cardboard into the water and seal 
all openings. 

d. Invert the other tumbler over the plant. 

e. Note the result after one hour. 

f . What effect on plants if the leaves are injured ? 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



81 




Fig. 64, Shows that plants give 
off part of the moisture absorbed 
from the soil through the leaves. 



2. Photosynthesis. 

a. Principle of binding up, 

1. Carbon dioxide is taken up and 
oxygen given off. 

2. Formation of starch. 

3. The process is performed by 
chlorophyll. 

b. Requirements for photosynthesis. 

1. Living plant cell. 

2. Carbonic acid gas. 

3. Chlorophyll. 
4.. Sunlight. 

5. Water. 

6. Chemical change. 

3. Manufacture of foods. Figures 30 
and 31. 
a. Comparison of a leaf to a mill. 

(Bergen's Botany.) 

1. Mill — ^palisade-cell of the leaf. 

2. Raw material — carbon dioxide, water. 

3. Milling apparatus — chlorophyll grains. 

4. Energy by which the mill is run — sunlight. 

5. Manufacture product — starch. 

6. Waste product — oxygen. 

Exercise 32. 

1. Object : To show that starch is in the leaves. 

2. Method: 

a. Place a green leaf in the sunlight for a day. 

b. Then put the leaf in boiling water for a minute. 

c. Immerse it in alcohol. 

d. Apply iodine solution. 

e. Rinse the leaf in water. 

f . Notice the blue color of starch. 

4. Digestion. 

a. Leaf diastase. 
1. Acts on starch. 

5. Assimilation. 

a. Takes place in every living cell. 

b. Leaf or organs of assimilation. 
1. Formation of carbohydrates. 

c. Sulphates, phosphates, nitrates, etc., meet the carbohydrates in 
the leaf and are assimilated. 

6. Respiration. 

a. Leaves are organs of respiration. 

b. Plant breathing. 

1. Taking in oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide. 

c. Stomata, openings for interchange of gases. 

d. Requires warmth. 

e. Phinciples. 

1. Oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide set free. 

2. Carbon dioxide is formed by chemical change. 

3. Process takes place in all plants. 



82 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



8 



1. 



2. 
3. 
4. 



4. Process takes place in dark, as well as light. 

5. It is a breaking-down process. 

Note: 

1. Blow through a tube into a dish of lime water and note re- 
results. 

Lower a burning candle into a bottle. What happens? 
Pour a little limewater into the bottle and shake. 
Note results. 

5. Let a dish of limewater remain over night exposed to the air. 

6. What happens? 

7. Questions. 

a. What is the work of the leaves ? 

b. What keeps a plant rigid? 

c. What is transpiration? 

d. How much water must a plant take in to get enough food to 
make a pound of try plant tissue ? 

e. Plants are made mostly of what? 

f. Name two kinds of foods. Give an example of each. 

g. What is the test for starch ? Of what is it composed ? 

h. Where is starch made in the plant ? How do you know ? 
i. What is chorophyll and what is its use ? 
j. How does carbon dioxide get into the air? 
References. 

a. Any Botany. 

b. Fruit Growing by Bailey. 

c. Fruit Growing by Paddock and Whipple. 

d. Lessons with Plants by Bailey. 

e. Experiments with Plants by Osterhout. 

Organ of Reproduction. 
Parts of a flower. 



stigma. 




Avther- 



rCorolla 



mcanent- 



Fig-. 65, Vertical section of a tomato 
blossom. 



Figr. 66, A stamen. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUKE 



83 



^ ' /,■■ \ Stroma (M 

a. Calyx (the cup). -^ ^ 
1. Sepal. 

b. Corolla (blossom). 
1. Petal. 

c. Stamens. Fig. 66. 

1. Anther. 

2. Pollen. 

3. Filament. 

d. Pistil. Fig. 67. 

1. Ovary. 

2. Style. 

3. Stigma. 
Essential organs. 

a. Stamens (male organs). 
1. Anther (bearer of pollen). 

b. Pistils (female organs). 
1. Stigma (receiver of pollen). 

Kind of flowers. 

a. Perfect has both stamens and pis- 
til. 

b. Imperfect has stamens only or 
pistil only. 

Kind of flower-bearing plants. 

a. Monoecious is a plant that has 
stamens a;id pistil in separate 
flowers on same plant. 

b. Dioecious is a plant that has sta- 
mens and pistil in separate flow- 
ers on different plants. 

Study of a flower. Fig 68. 

a. Transverse section of an anther 
before its dehiscence. 

b. An anther dehiscing, with pollen. 

c. Filament. 

d. Base of floral leaves. 

e. Nectaries. 

f. Wall of carpels. 

g. Style, 
h. Stigma. 

i. Germinating pollen grains, 
m. A pollen tube which has reached and entered the mieropyle of 

the ovule, 
n. A stalk of ovule. 
0. Base of the inverted ovule, 
p. Outer integument or testa. 
q. Inner integument. 
s. Rudimentary ovule, 
t. Cavity of the embryo sac. 
u. Its basal portion. 
V. Endosperm. 
z. Oosphere. 




Fig. 
flower. 



68, Diagram of a 
(Andrew's Botany.) 



simple 



84 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



Pollination. 

1. Kind. 

a. Close pollination. 

b. Cross pollination. 

1. By wind. 

2. By animals. 

2. Method. Fig 69. 

a. Pollen tubes. 

b. Course of pollen tubes. 

c. Embryo sac. 

d. Germ cell. 

e. Union of two bodies (ga- 
metes). 

1. Egg cell in embryo sac. 

2. Pollen grains. 

3. Lack in settings fruit. 

a. Lack of pollination. 

b. Inability of certain varie- 
ties to pollinate. 

c. Certain fruit spurs fail to 
produce fruit buds. 

d. Dropping of blossoms. 

1. Vegetative vigor of 
trees. 

2. Poor condition of trees. 

3. Insects and diseases. 

4. Rain or snow during 
blooming period. 

5. Spraying in blooming 
period. 

e. Climatic conditions. 

1. "Winter freezes kill 
fruit buds. 

2. Spring frost injures 
fruit buds. 

f . Spraying when in full bloom. 

4. Essentials of good pollination. 

a. Varieties must bloom at the same time. 

b. Varieties must have an afSnity for each other. 

c. Varieties must be good pollen producers. 

5. Pollination of varieties. 

a. Self-fertile is one which sets perfect fruit without the aid of 
pollen from some other variety. 

b. Self-sterile is one which does not set fruit without the aid of 
pollen from some other variety. 

e. Partially self -fertile or self -sterile is one which under certain 
conditions will set a limited number of fruit. 
Mixed Planting. 
1. Many varieties will not bear well alone. 

a. This is because they require the pollen from blossoms of other 
varieties. 

b. Since all varieties are benefited by cross-pollination, it is a good 




Fig. 69, Pollination of the ovules. 
(Gofe and Mayne.) 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



85 



thing to plant two, four, or six rows of one kind and then plant 
another kind, 
e. It is best to plant two, four, or six rows rather than one, three, 
or five, as it facilitates the work when the number of rows are 
even. 

d. This especially is true in spraying as the period of blossoming, 
and the time of spraying will vary slightly with each variety. 

e. Plant varieties together which bloom near the same time. 

f. When the following varieties are grown by themselves and set 
fruit, the fruit is inferior in size. 

1. Pears— Self-Sterile. 



Duchess. 

Anjou. 

Bartlett. 

Clargeau. 

Clapp. 

Bosc. 
Manning. 
Seckel. 
Angouleme. 



Autumn Sweet 

Arkansas Black 

Bietigheimer 

Bellflower (Yellow) 

Chenanga Strawberry 

Canada Sweet 

Canada Reinette 

Early Strawberry 

Fallawater 

Gravenstein 

Gano 

Hoover 

Haas 

Hyde's King 

King 

Jonathan 

McMahon's White 

Mammoth Black Twig 

York Imperial 

Maiden's Blush 



Lawrence. 

Winter Nellis. 

Easter. 

Doyonne. 

Howell. 
2. Pears — Self-Sterile, partially. 

Flemish Beauty. 

Le Comte. 

Tyson. 

White Doyonne. 
3. Self-Sterile Apples. 

Missouri Pippin 

Northern Spy 

Norton's Melon 

Ortley 

Pewaukee 

Primate 

Golden Pippin 

Red Cheek Pippin 

Rome Beauty 

Rambo 

Red Astrachan 

Rhode Island Greening 

Rosbury Russet 

Salome 

Spitzenburg 

Tallman's Sweet 

Wealthy 

Winesap 

Transcendant Crab 



Baldwin 
Bailey's Sweet 
Grime's Golden 
Keswick Codlin 

Ben Davis 
Canada Red 



4. Self -Fertile Apples. 

Duchess of Oldenburg 
Shiawasse 
White Pippin 
Yellow Newton Pipjnn 
Partially Self-Sterile Apples. 
Spitzenburg 
Wagner 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



Mann Whitney's Crab 

Rambo Yellow Transparent 

2. Questions. 

a. Is it always best to plant two or more varieties together? 

b. What varieties of apples are best to plant together? 

c. What varieties of pears are best to plant together? 

d. What varieties of plums are best to plant together? 

e. What varieties of peaches are best to plant together? 

f. What varieties of cherries are best to plant together? 

g. What varieties of each of the small fruits are best to plant to- 
gether ? 

h. How does the pollen get from anther to stigma? 
i. Is the stigma ever closed? When? 
j. What becomes of the pistil in ripe fruit? 
k. What is the value of pollination? 

3. References. 

a. Plant Breeding, by Bailey. 

b. Fruit Growing, by Bailey. 

c. Fruit Growing, by Paddock and Whipple. 

d. Oregon Bulletin No. 20. 

e. New York Bulletins Nos. 169, 224, 350. 

f . Lessons with Plants by Osterhout. 

g. Experiments with Plants, by Osterhout. 

h. The American Fruit Culturist, by Thomas. 

BUDS AND BRANCHES. 
1. Buds. 



1. Buds. 

a. Study a twig. 



70. 



1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 




of 



Fig 
t — terminal bud. 
ax — axillary bud. 
Is — leaf scars, 
tr — leaf traces. 
1— lenticel. 

rs — ring of scars left by bud scales of pre- 
ceding season. 
7, Study a twig of a fruit tree. 
2. Buds are the undeveloped branches or flowers. 

a. Composed of a mass of tiny leaves. 

1. Inside ones are crumpled and compacted. 

2. The outside ones are known as the bud 
scales with a regular formation and drop off when the bud 
starts to grow, leaving a leaf scar. 

b. Kind of buds. 

1. Terminal buds are ones that grow at the end of twigs or 
shoots. 

a. A terminal bud may be either a leaf bud or a flower bud, 
or both a leaf bud and flower bud. 

2. Axillary buds are the ones that grow in the axil of leaves. 

a. An axillary bud may be a leaf bud, flower bud, or dormant 
bud. iff^l^f 



Fig. 70, 
Winter twig 

maple. 
(Andrews' Botany) 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 87 

Exercise 33. 

1. Object: To locate the buds, scar and leaf traces, etc. 

2. Method: 

a. Collect several fruit twigs ; one year old ; two years old ; three 
year old. 

b. Point out the different buds. 

c. Point out the number of leaves on each twig. 

d. Point out the leaf traces. 

e. Point out the leaf scars. 

f. Point out the ring of scars. 

g. Compare the growth, buds, number of leaves of the different 
twigs. 

3. Note. 

a. Pull off the bark of the tree and note the little incipient 
branches which never develop. 

b. What would have been the result if the bark above each in- 
cipient branch had been cut? 

c. Study the twigs of the Apple Rosette. 

3. Function of buds. 

a. Terminal flower buds produce fruit. 

b. Terminal leaf bud continues the growth of its twig or shoot. 

c. Axillary flower bud produces fruit. 

d. Axillary leaf bud continues the growth of a spur which may be 
a fruit spur or a leaf spur. 

e. Axillary dormant bud may lie inactive for months or even 
years, then through the injury or destruction of its strongest 
rivals- or some other favorable cause, develops into a branch, as 
sprouts on stumps. 

4. Growth of buds. 

a. The tendency of a plant is to grow from its uppermost or term- 
inal buds. 

b. It will be noted that these buds are the strongest because they 
have had the most air, heat, and light, to develop them. 

c. They grow in the direction that they are pointed. 

d. Pruning may change the direction of growth. 

e. Light will change the natural direction. 

5. Causes of the difference between fruit-buds and leaf buds. 

a. Leaf -buds are the result of rapid growth and fruit buds of slow 
growth. 

b. Check the growth by any means and many fruit-buds will be 
produced. 

e. Check the free flow of the sap and fruit-buds are produced. 

d. Fruit-spurs, produced from leaf-buds, but which, making little 
growth, become fruit-bearing. 

e. Pruning leaf-buds produces fruitfulness of the tree. 

f. Pruning fruit-buds produces more vigorous growth. 

6. How to tell the fruit buds, 
a. Structure of the buds. 

1. The fruit buds are larger, thicker, rounder, more blunt and 
more fuzzy than leaf buds. 

2. The fruit buds contain miniature unopened flowers when ex- 
amined. 



88 MANUAL OF HOKTICULTUEE 

b. Character of spurs. 

1. The fruit spurs generally remain such and so many of them 
may be many years old and yet be only a few inches long. 

2. The fruit spurs that produce terminal fruit buds grow 
crooked. 

3. The fruit spurs that mature fruit one year, produce only leaf 
buds that year, and make blossom buds the following year. 

7. Location and habits of fruit buds. 

a. Apple. 

1. The fruit buds may be terminal on spurs of one or more year 
old. 

2. The fruit buds may be terminal on twigs of last year's 
growth. 

3. The fruit buds may be axillary buds on last year's growth. 

4. The fruit buds contain both flowers and leaves. 

5. The fruit buds are formed in the summer and lie dormant 
during the winter. 

6. Vigorous growth checks fruitfulness and checking the growth 
produces fruitfulness. 

7. Fruit bearing on spurs is conductive to the production of 
annual crops. 

8. Fruit buds grow singly and expand into clusters of flowers 
with several leaves. 

b. Pears are same as apples. 

c. Quinces. 

1. The fruit buds are terminal on shoots formed the same year 
upon new grown wood. 

d. General of the stone fruit. 

1. The fruit buds are lateral on twigs, and develop in axil of 
leaves of the current year's growth and the fruit is borne on 
one year old wood. 

2. The fruit buds contain flowers; no leaves, or only rudiment 
of leaves. 

e. Peach. 

1. Same as general, except — 

2. The fruit buds are nearer the tips of strong growing twigs. 

3. The fruit buds carry from one to two flowers. 

4. The fruit buds are generally two in a place with leaf buds 
between. 

5. The fruit buds are formed in summer and lay dormant dur- 
ing winter. 

6. The fruit buds grow in groups in the axil of clusters of three 
leaves. 

f. Apricot. 

1. Same as general, except — 

2. The fruit buds may be terminal on . spurs of new growth 
which are often very short. 

3. Fruit buds grow in the axils of single leaves. 

4. The fruit buds form the same year on new spurs which grow 
on old wood. 

5. The apricot and peach are almost similar in their fruiting 
habits. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 89 

g.-Plum. 

1. Same as general, except — 

2. The fruit buds are on spurs of old wood, seldom new. 

3. The fruit buds carry from one to five flowers. 
h. Cherries. 

1. Sour cherries. 

a. Same as general, except — 

b. The fruit bud carries from one to five flowers. 

2. Sweet cherries. 

a. Same as general, except — 

b. Generally the short spurs on second year's wood are the 
fruit bearing part. 

c. Fruit buds may be terminal and carry from one to five 
flowers. 

i. Prunes same as plums. 

Exercise 34. 

1. Object: To study fruit buds of the pome and stone fruits. 

2. Method: 

a. Select a twig of each variety. 

b. Locate the fruit buds of each. 

e. The number of flowers in the fruit bud. 

d. Position of leaves and axillary buds. 

e. Study the scars and bud scales. 

3. Compare fruit buds of stone fruit with pome fruit. 

4. Describe the growth of the fruit buds, leaf buds, of stone 
fruit and the pome fruit. 

j. Gooseberries. 

1. The fruit buds are terminal on spurs of one or more years 
old. 
k. Currants. 

1. The fruit buds are either terminal or lateral on spurs of one 
or more years old. 
1. Raspberries, blackberries, dewberries, etc. 

1. The fruit buds are either terminal or lateral on lateral sum- 
mer shoots, 
m. Grapes. 

1. The fruit buds are lateral on shoots of current season's 
growth from buds which spring from last year's growth, 
n. Select shoots of the berry fruit and study the fruit buds as of 
stone fruit. 
8. Environments. 

a. Air, light, heat and food supply. 

Exercise 35. 

1. Object: To show the effect of environments on the growth 
of buds. 

2. Method: 

a. Co'mpare a compact headed tree with a free growing, 
open-centered tree. 

1. Amount of air admitted and size of buds. 

2. Amount of light admitted and size of buds. 

3. Amount of heat admitted and size of buds. 



90 



IklANUAL OF HORTICULTCIRE 




Fig. 71, Shows ex- 
current growth; Pyra- 
midal top. 

(Andrews' Botany.) 



2. Branches. 

1. Branches are produced from leaf buds which 
may be terminal, lateral, or adventitious. 

2. Buds are buds only so long as they remain 
dormant. 

3. Lateral branches are of varying lengths, some 
being so short as to be mistaken for buds. 

4. Kind of branches. 

a. Fruit spurs are short lateral branches, 
which usually remain fruit spurs. 

b. Adventitious branches are ones that develop 
anywhere on the stem or branch except at 
nodes. 

e. Watersprouts are often produced by heavy 
winter pruning because more plant food is 
sent up from the roots than the top can use, 
resulting in the growth of dormant lateral 
buds. 

5. Arrangements of branches. 

a. Opposite. 

b. Alternate. 

c. Series of rings. 

6. Growth of Branches. 

a. Heavy pruning of the tops in winter or during dormant period 
produces wood growth because the plant food taken up by the 
root in the spring is concentrated into smaller portion of top, 
and forcing a rapid growth of the parts left. 

b. The strongest shoots or branches are the terminal ones. 

c. If the terminal buds are fruit buds or become injured or 
pruned, the growth of the branch is produced from a lateral 
bud, resulting in a zig-zag growth. 

7. Give the functions of the branches. 

8. Collect twigs from different kinds of trees. 

a. Make a drawing of each. 

b. Compare their growth. 

c. Study a cross section. <HtUA/l/ 

Exercise 36. 

1. Object: To determine what buds pro- 
duce branches. 

2. Method: 

a. Examine a fruit tree. 

b. Find branches from what buds 
they grow. 

c. Determine from what buds they 

(yrn-m^ ^^^- '^^ shows deliques- 

s-'-"-'"^* cent growth; Intermediate 

d. From what year's growth? top. (Andrews' Botany.) 

e. Do branches grow better from lateral buds close to end of 
limb or lower down on limb? 

f. The formation of a flower bud has what effect on the 
growth of lateral branch? 

g. Examine two-year-old wood to determine what becomes of 
lateral buds. 




^t^'''jj/<. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 91 

9. References. 

a. See references under mixed planting. 

PLANTING AN ORCHARD. 

1. Time of planting. 

a. Spring planting. 

1. It is preferable where there is extreme low temperature in 
winter and where the ground is exposed to extreme dry- 
freezing. 

2. Generally, the trees maintain their dormant condition better 
in the spring if they are heeled in during the winter. 

3. Plant with the opening of spring before the stored-up plant 
food is set free is the proper time. 

b. Fall planting. 

1. It is practiced in warm sections where the winters are not 
very cold. 

2. Fall planted trees, in warm sections get an earlier start than 
in the spring. 

3. The danger of other work or bad weather may delay spring 
planting. 

4. Fall planting has this objectionable feature that the roots do 
not take hold of the ground sufficiently to supply enough 
moisture to maintain a healthy, active circulation of sap 
which is required to prevent shriveling of the branches dur- 
ing winter's extreme cold and exhaustive evaporation from 
drying winds. 

2. Selection of trees. 

a. The selection of trees is one of the most important things and 
upon the care and judgment in this matter largely depends the 
kind of an orchard that will be grown. 

b. A vigorous, well grown, one-year-old tree, with a large, strong 
heavy base having .a well developed root system, should be 
selected. 

c. Trees of this type and age are more satisfactory and profitable 
in time and suffer less in transplanting, and are much more 
easily handled than older ones. 

d. The local nurseryman, if perfectly familiar with his business, 
will understand the needs and demands of his home customers 
and should grow the varieties best suited to his section of coun- 
try. 

e. By securing trees at the nearby nursery all danger from damage 
by long transit and the injurious effects of sunshine and frost 
are avoided. 

f. Some prefer budded trees to grafted ones, as grafted trees in- 
duce crown gall. 

g. Study the different varieties. 

1. "Variety best suited for given soil. 

2. "Whether vigorous or weak growing kind. 

3. Variety that will properly color on given soil. 

4. "Whether upright or spreading in form. 

5. "Whether early or late varieties. 

6. "Whether good or poor keepers. 



92 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



C. 



d. 



Early. 
Gravenstein 
Oldenburg. 
Red Astrachan. 
Tetofsky. 
Wealthy. 
Yellow Transparent 



Ortley. 

Red-cheek Pippin. 

Rome Beauty. 

Spitzenberg. 

Wagener. 

Willow Twig. 

Winesap (shy pollen 
producer). 

White Winter Pear- 
main, 

Yellow Bellflower. 



3. Choose varieties that will pollinate together. 

a. If there are two or more varieties, plant four rows of each va- 
riety. 

b. The above arrangement is better and more convenient for har- 
vesting, pruning and spraying. 

Any variety occurring in any of the following columns is well 
pollinated by any one or more varieties in the same column. 
Table of early and late pollination. 

1.. Apples. 
Late. 
Arkansas Black. 
Baldwin. 
Ben Davis. 
Black Twig. 
Gano. 

Grimes Golden. 
Jonathan. 
Mcintosh. 
Newton. 
Northern Spy. 
2. Pears. 

Late. 
Angouleme. 
Bosc. 

Du Comice. 
Easter Beurre. 
P. Barry. 
Winter Nellis. 
Varieties that do best on rich medium mesa soils. 
1. Ben Davis, Gano, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Rome Beauty, 
White Winter Pearmain, Winesap, Spitzenberg. 

f. Varieties that do well on heavy soils. 
1. Missouri Pippin, Newtown Pippin, both green and yellow. 

g. Varieties that do well on light soils. 
1. Arkansas Black, Ben Davis, Gano. 

h. Varieties that do well on any soils. 

1. Ben Davis, Gano, Yellow Transparent, 
i. Commercial varieties. 

1. Gano, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Rome Beauty, Winesap, 
Newtown Pippin, Spitzenberg and Arkansas Black, 
j. Make a list of the varieties for your section. 
Distances for planting. 

a. A decision as to the proper distance apart to set apple trees 
varies with different planters. 

b. Some plant 16 to 32 feet, that is, the trees 16 feet apart in rows 
32 feet apart. 

e. The object of this method is to obtain a crop from the trees un- 
til they begin to interfere with each other, when every alternate 
tree in the row is cut out, leaving the trees in the entire orchard 
at a distance of 32 feet each way. 

d. The trees to be cut out should be early-bearing, short-lived va- 
rieties. 



Early. 
Bartlett. 
Clairgeau. 
D'Anjou. 
Howell. 
Kieffer. 



e. 



MAJSrUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



93 



e. _^his system has the advantage of more fully utilizing the land 
for fruit production until the thinning out becomes necessary. 

f. Other planters adopt a distance between trees of 24 or 30 feet 
apart each way, claiming that by the time the trees interfere 
with each other they will have finished their growth and the 
orchard will begin to decline. 

g. The distance of 30 feet each way is generally used. 

1. It will afford ample space between the rows for growing any 
crop which requires cultivation, such as corn, beans, potatoes, 
etc. 

2. It will afford free circulation of air and sunshine, both of 
which are essential to the growing of well developed and 
highly colored fruit. 

h. Tabulated distances. 

1. Standard apples 30 feet each way 

2. Standard pears 20 feet each way 

3. Sweet cherries 30 feet each way 

4. Sour cherries 20 feet each way 

5. Standard plums, peaches, apricots, 

nectarines 16 to 18 feet each way 

6. Quinces, dwarf pears and apples .... 10 to 12 feet each way 

7. Grapes 7x10 to 16x16 feet each way 

8. Currants and gooseberries 4 feet each way 

9. Raspberries and blackberries 3x5 to 4x7 feet each way 

10. Strawberries in field 1x3 to 3% feet apart 

11. Strawberries in garden 1 to 2 feet apart 

Methods. 

a. Square Method. 

1. Rule: Multiply the dis- 
tance in feet between the 
rows by the distance the 
trees or plants are apart 
in the rows, and the pro- 
duet will be the number 
of square feet for each 
one, which, divided into 
the number of feet in an 
acre (43,560) will give 
the number for the acre. 

2. It is the easiest laid out 
and cultivated and per- 
mits of gradual thinning 
out of fillers if they are 
needed, but the land is 
not evenly distributed to 
each tree. 

3. Fig. 73 shows the square 
method using thirty feet 
as the distance that the 
trees are to be apart. 
a. The dots indicate the 




Fig-. 73, Shows the square method. 



permanent, primary, secondary trees. 



94 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

b. No. 1 shows that permanent trees are set in the corner of 
the square. 

c. No. 2 shows where the primary and secondary fillers are 
set. 

d. No. 3 shows that the secondary fillers are removed. 

e. No. 4 shows that the primary fillers are also removed. 

4. In this, the trees are set at the corners of a square, making 
the rows an equal distance in both directions. 

Exercise 37. 

1. Object: To lay out an orchard by the square method. 

2. Method: 

a. Establish a line (BJ) along one side of the field. 

b. Locate where trees are to be set. 

1. Use a No. 10 or 12 gauge galvanized wire as long as 
the field ; have washers soldered on wire, use tags on 
wire, or make links in wire at distances that the trees 
are to be set apart. 

2. Place the wire on any line and drive a peg where 
each tree is to be set as indicated by the washers, 
tags, or links. 

c. Place wire on line (BJ) and drive pegs where trees are 
to be set. 

d. Establish the line (AB). 

1. Use a carpenter's square which has sides in the ratio 
of 3, 4 and 5. 

2. Place the square at the corner (B) ; one side will be 
on the line (BJ) and another will mark the line 
(AB) ; then locate the corner (A) by sighting from 
the corner (B). 

e. Establish line (Al) in the same manner as line (AB) 
and locate the trees by using the wire. 

f. Establish rows across the field. 

1. Stretch the wire from "A" to "B" and drive a peg 
where each tree is to be set. 

2. Locate other tree rows by using the corresponding 
stakes in lines (Al and BJ). 

g. When this is done by using the planting board, the 
holes may be dug and the trees planted, and the rows 

kept straight, 
h. Should the field be large, run a base cross rows midway 

of the field, or sub-base lines to help out. 
i. Should the land be cut up by a steep draw running 

through it, draw the wire tight just the same and drop 

small stone from the link in the wire, 
j. Where it strikes the ground drive a peg to locate the 

tree. 



MANUAL OF HORTJCl'LTURE 



95 




74, Shows the Hexagonal System. 



jECexagonal or triangle meth- 
od. 

1. Rule : Divide the number 
required to the acre 
"square method" by the 
decimal .866 ; or calculate 
the number by the 
' ' square method ' ' and 
add 15 per cent to get the 
number of plants re- 
quired to the acre by this 
method. 

2. Fig. 74 shows the hexag- 
onal system, using 30 feet 
as the distance that the 
trees are to be apart. 

a. Dots indicate perma- 
nent and primary 
trees. 

b. No. 1 shows where 
permanent trees are 
set. 

c. No. 2 shows where pri- 
mary fillers are set. 

d. No. 3 shows that primary fillers are removed. 

3. In this, the trees are more evenly distributed over the surface 
which allows of more permanent trees being planted per 
acre ; 15 per cent more than the square method and yet the 
trees are the same distance apart as in the square method. 

4. This in itself is worthy of considering. 

5. The triangular system is not so easily cultivated, especially 
at the ends of the rows and in the corners. 

Exercise 38. 

1. Object : To lay out an orchard by the hexagonal method. 

2. Method: 

a. Establish the lines BH, AB, and AG; as in the square 
method. 

b. Use wire, as in square method. 

c. The trees on lines AG and BH are farther apart than 
on the lines AB and GH. 

d. To find the distance that the trees are apart in lines 
AG and BH. 

1. In triangle ADC, the side DC is the distance that the 
trees are to be apart and the side AC is double the 
distance that the trees are apart. 

2. Extract the square root of the difference between 
the square of AC and the square of DC and the 
answer is the distance AD which is the same as AL. 

3. The distance AL may be found by fastening one end 
of the wire at D, then the second mark on the wire 
will meet the line AG at a point L. 



96 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

4. AL is the distance that the trees are to be apart on 
lines AG and BH. 

5. Mark off the distance AL along the lines AG and BH 
and drive pegs where the trees are to be set. 

e. The first row of trees will be the line DL, and the sec- 
ond row will start at "C." 

f. After a few rows are pegged off, a base row may be run 
diagonally from the corner "A." 

c. Quincunx Method. 

1. It takes one-half more trees to plant an acre by the Quincunx 
method than the square method. 

2. This system plants in triangles rather than in squares. 

3. Usually the fifth tree is set in the center of a square. 

d. Problems. 

1. Work out the number of permanent trees required to plant 
an acre by each method, from 15x15 to 40x40 feet. 

2. Work out the number of fillers required to plant an acre by 
each method. 

3. Tabulate the result. 

Exercise 39. 

1. Object: To determine how to plant several varieties. 

2. Method: 

a. Make selections of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 8 varieties. 

b. Use some of the selections as fillers. 

c. Use 14, 15, 16% feet as distance. 

d. Determine how to set trees in order that any variety, or 
varieties, may be cut out after 8 to 10 years. 

e. Note : The commercial value of fruit in ten years may 
be different than at present. 

6. Transplanting. 

a. Preparing the land at time of planting-. 

1. The land should be in as good condition as it is possible to 
make it. 

2. There should be a deep, rich bed of mellow soil and well 
drained for the tree rows. 

3. The soil had better be prepared in the late fall in order that 
it will be ready for early spring planting. 

4. The method of plowing the land in the fall and leaving it lay 
up loose through the winter is a good one because the effect 
of the rain, snow and freezing will leave the soil in better 
condition. 

5. Never use manure in contact with the roots but if soil is poor 
use nitrate of soda. 

b. Protect the roots. 

1. Keep the roots covered with straw, burlap, or canvas and on 
reaching home heel in, wetting and packing the ground 
thoroughly. 

2, Take only a few at a time out of the ground at planting time. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUEE 



97 





Fig. 76 — 
Shows the re- 
lation of the 

Fig 75, Shows how the ™°*^„ft*°r thl 
roots are cut at digging lZtf^^\Te 
^^™®' pruned. 



3. Keeping the trees in a barrel or a tub of water in the field 
while planting, insures against needless exposure. |.jy 
c. Preparing the tree for plant- v 

ing. 

1. All mutilated or dead 
roots should be removed 
and in cutting away roots 
it should be the aim to 
make the cut in such a 
manner that a smooth, 
clean surface is left. 

2. When the tree is placed 
in position, the smooth 
cuts should come in con- 
tact with the moist soil 
either at the sides or bot- 
tom of the hole. 

3. IMany of the fruit-bearing 
plants as the apple, pear, peach, plum, and grape will stand 
quite a severe root pruning. 

7. Digging the hole. Fig. 77. 

a. No. 1 shows a board four feet 
by four inches with notches on 
side. 

b. No. 2 shows the board in posi- 
tion after the hole is dug. 

e. No. 3 shows another planting 

board four feet by four inches 

hinged in the center. 

1. The end (A) is to be raised 
after the board is placed, in 
order to dig the hole, with- 
out moving the board from 
position. 

d. No. 4 shows the end (A) in po- 
sition after the hole is dug. 

e. Make the hole large enough to 
admit the roots without cramp- 
ing or bending. 

f. The above holes show how the 
bottoms should be in order to 
give the roots plenty of room. 

8. Setting the tree. 

a. Cover the roots with fine soil 
which should be carefully 
worked among them. 

b. Pour in 'some water when the 
hole is partially filled ; if in an 
irrigated district run in the 

water from the ditch. 




Shows two planting boards. 



98 MANUAL OF liORTICULTUllE 

c. The ground should be firmly and solidly packed over all parts of 
the roots to prevent dry air and frost entering and destroying 
them. 

d. Fill the holes with the surrounding surface after the fresh earth 
settles and leave a dry mulch of earth on top. 

e. It is best to set the trees a little deeper than when in the 
nursery, and leaning slightly against the prevailing wind. 

f. By this position the tops will soon shade and protect the bodies 
from the intense heat of the summer sun which is likely to cause 
sun scald. 

g. Large trees should be staked and tied. 

Exercise 40. 

1. Object: To transplant seedlings by "tin can" method. 

2. Method: 

a. Get some small, thrifty seedlings about 6 to 8 inches high, 
growing in nursery beds or in the open, if possible. 

b. Dig them up carefully, allowing as much earth as possible 
to remain clinging to the roots. 

c. Get some tin cans, such as tomato cans, in which to plant 
the seedlings. 

d. Across the bottom of the cans make two cuts at right 
angles to provide drainage, and allow the roots of the 
seedlings to escape. 

e. Place the seedlings in the cans and fill in rich earth until 
they are firmly planted in the cans. 

f. They may now be kept in the schoolroom windows if the 
cans are set in a trough or tray so that the little trees can 
be watered and tended like ordinary plants. 

g. In the spring set out cans and all in places where it is de- 
sired to plant the trees. 

h. The cans will soon rust away and the little trees will con- 
tinue to grow unchecked. 

3. Note: If desired, seeds can be planted in the cans and the 
trees grown in this way instead of transplanting the seedlings 
to the cans. 

9. Study of Bush Fruits, 
a. References. 

1. Bush Fruits by F. W. Card. 

2. "Washington Bulletins Nos. 18, 25, 26. 

3. U. S. Dept. Bulletins Nos. 154, 198, 213. 

10. References. 

a. Fruit Growing by Bailey. 

b. Fruit Growing by Paddock and Whipple. 

c. American Horticulture Manual, 2 Vols, by Budd and Hansen. 

d. The American Fruit Culturist by Thomas. 

e. Popular Fruit Growing by Green. 

f. Nursery Book by Bailey. 

g. Lessons with Plants by Bailey. 

h. Experiments with Plants by Osterhout. 

i. Montana Bulletins Nos. 44, 77. 

j. Oregon Bulletins Nos. 20, 111. 

k. "Washington Bulletins Nos. 14, 24. 

1. U. S. Dept. Bulletins Nos. 113, 181, 482. 



]\iANUAL OF HORTICULTUEE 9& 

PRUNING. 

1. Pruning' and training' are requisites in the successful management 
of an orchard. 

2. The objects to be attained are : 

a. Symmetrical and evenly balanced heads. 

b. To admit sunlight and free circulation of air into all parts of 
the tree tops to give color and quality to the fruit. 

c. To maintain sufficient density of foliage to protect the trunks 
and branches from the direct intense heat of the sun's rays, 
which is likely to scald and injure trees. 

d. To remove dead, dying, diseased, or broken branches. 

e. To reduce the annual growth for the purpose of correcting the 
bad habits of the plant. 

f. To remove branches in order to prevent the breaking or disfig- 
uring of the tree in later years. 

g. To reduce the annual growth in order to reduce the crop in pro- 
portion to the capacity of the tree. 

h. To protect trees against storms, 
i. To facilitate tillage, spraying, thinning and harvesting. 

3. Pruning accelerates or augments growth in plants because the re- 
maining parts receive more plant food. 

4. Tends to develop the lateral and the dormant buds. 

5. Rejuvenation of trees. 

a. Old, weak, diseased, or winter-killed trees are rejuvenated by 
heavy pruning of the tops, which induces the trees to throw out 
strong new shoots. 

b. Fruit trees which have reached a great age resulting in pro- 
ducing undersized fruit may be headed back as far as two- 
thirds of the length of the limbs, or even more. 

c. All heading-back should be to such an extent as to completely 
remove the injured branches. 

d. If this is not practiced, the injured branches may start to grow 
in the spring and then die later in the season. 

e. Injured trees should be thoroughly headed-back. 

6. Methods of pruning*, 
a. Heading-out. 

1. Study the location of fruit-buds. 

2. Cutting limbs back just above an outside bud or lateral 
branches. 

3. Causes spreading tops. 

a. The natural form of a tree. 

b. One factor used to develop a spreading head is to prune 
the limb to an outer bud. 

4. This causes the new growth to point outward. 

5. This may be increased still farther by leaving a stub about 
two inches above the bud, cutting the stub away later in the . 
season. 

6. This causes the new growth to grow more nearly at right 
angles with the parent limb. 

7. The more upright the tree grows, the more heading-out 
ought to be practiced. 

8. Study where the fruit spurs are located before pruning. 



100 MANUAL OF PIORTICULTURE 

b. Heading-in. 

1. Study the location of fruit buds. 

2. Cutting limbs back just above an inside bud. 

3. Causes upright tops. 

a. Heading-in causes the growth to point inward. 

b. Heading-in tends to thicken the crowns of the trees, mak- 
ing them have dense tops. 

4. Young trees are generally headed-in to make thick, stocky 
branches. 

5. Heading-in must be lessened as the tree ages. 

6. The more spreading the tree grows, the more heading-in 
ought to be practiced. 

c. Heading-back. 

1. It may be combined with heading-in or heading-out. 

2. Heavy cutting back of the top-center limbs. 

3. Tends to make thick and stocky branches. 

4. Points to determine. 

a. Thick and round-headed tops, or, 

b. Free-growing and open-centered tops. 

c. Nearness the trees are to each other. 

d. Type of trees. 

1. Branches grow upright or spreading. 

2. Branches that grow upright at first, then grow spread- 
ing after the tree begins to bear fruit. 

5. Never prune a tree until you know why you are pruning it. 

6. A tree having upright growth, as some varieties of apples, 
and most pear trees, should be headed-back when young, so 
that the lateral buds will develop and thus make the head of 
the tree broader. 

7. Begin to prune when the trees are young and prune a little 
each year. 

8. The heading-back of old trees tends to develop water-sprouts 
out of the fruit spurs and fruit twigs. 

9. These water-sprouts, then, must be cut off and results in the 
loss of the fruit which should have been grown on the spurs. 

10. Always cut out the large limbs of a tree before you cut the 
smaller ones if the top of the tree is too thick. 

11. "We are apt to prune off the necessary limbs which we can 
conveniently get at and leave a mass of smaller limbs in the 
top. 

12. Study the tree as a unit, remembering that each variety of 
trees needs its own kind of pruning. 

13. The formation of a good shape and framework on the tree, 
rather than to produce fruit bearing, is the first principle. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



lOl 



_ 14. The load of fruit is carried nearer the trunk on 
main structural branches which are larger in pro- 
portion to their length than lateral branches, 
and better able to carry a load of fruit which the 
tree may develop. 
Pruning- the stem. 

a. Cut back the top from twelve to eighteen inches 
above the ground. 

b. Leave the buds so arranged that three or five shoots 
will develop. 

c. The orchard consists of a lot of stubs sticking out of 
the ground not over eighteen inches high. 

d. During the season, these stubs will develop shoots 
from each bud. 

e. Allow all the shoots to grow until early in July ; if 
the tree stems are slender let grow until the first of 
August, then remove the surplus shoots. 

Main branches. 

a. Three to five branches are considered the ideal number. 

b. More may be left upon some varieties, particularly those which 
are strong growers and upon trees which have a well developed 
root system at planting time. 

c. If the roots have been badly mutilated in removing the tree 
from the nursery, it will be safer to reduce the branches to three 
rather than to maintain a larger number. 



■«l» 

Fig. 78. — 
Shows where 
to cut stem 
at time of 
of planting. 




A B C D 

Fig-. 79. — Shows how tops are shaped and scaffold limbs arranged. 
(Paddock and Whipple.) 

Study fig. 79. 

1, A — shows tree at end of first season's growth. 

2, B — shows the same tree headed-back. 

3. C — shows the same tree at end of second season's growth. 

4. D — shows the same tree headed-back, but branches too close. 



102 JIANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

e. Pruning should be directed toward retaining the above shape, 
cutting back excessive growths and thinning and renewing the 
bearing wood and to develop fruit spurs. 

f. Arrangement of branches. 

1. Disposed of equal distances about the main stem or axis of 
the plant in order that the development will be symmetrical. 

2. Branches should be disposed at some distance from one an- 
other. 

a. The second branch should be at an angle of 33° or 45° 
from the first and several inches above it. 

b. The third branch should be at an angle of 66° or 90° 
from the first and several inches above the second branch. 

c. The other branches should be arranged in the same pro- 
portion. 

3. The above arrangement forms the best union between branch 
and body ; and is less liable to injury from heavy snows and 
winds. 

9. Forming- the top. 

a. Merits of low-headed top. 

1. Low limbs may be trained upright. 

2. Hold their weight and position better. 

3. It is easier to spray, prune and gather the fruit. 

4. Symmetry and solidity are better formed. 

5. Less danger from high winds. 

6. Protection against sun scald. 

b. The horizontal diameter of the top should be double the height 
of the top, which is true with peach trees and many varieties of 
apple trees. 

c. The top should be free-growing, open-headed, in order that the 
fruit may receive sufficient air, heat, and light. 

d. The lowest scaffold limb may be only a few inches above the 
ground, depending on the number of limbs. 

e. In forming the head, care should be taken to 
have the framework branches disposed at differ- 
ent heights along the body of the tree, several 
inches apart, and distributed as evenly as possi- 
ble around the body as a central axis. Fig. 80. 

f. End of the first season's growth. 

1. Consider each shoot as a separate tree. 

2. Select from three to five of the best shoots to 
form the head of the tree when the tree is 
pruned. 

3. Care should be taken that no two spring out ^^ ' § o — 
opposite one another. Fig. 80. Shows' how the 

4. Cut back to an outside bud, the shoots 1, 2, 3, be^arra^ngld aJid 
from one-third to one-half of the last year's ^^ere to prune 

,1 TTC o-i one year from 

growth. Fig. 81. planting. 




MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



103 



5. Leave the buds so arranged that the 
first year's shoot will subdivide; as 
in Fig. 81. 

6. To secure a well formed and nicely 
balanced head, these shoots must be 
frequently watched and any which 
grow too fast, pinch them back, to 
maintain an equality. 

7. Those left should be the strongest 
shoots, at equal distances apart 
around the stem, and should tend to 
an outward growth to spread and 
make an open head. 

8. Remember that the leaves are to 
the plant what lungs are to animals. 

9. Sometimes trees are planted that 
have two or more pruned limbs, which sub- 
divide and several shoots are grown on each 
limb at the end of the first season's growth. 
Fig. 82. 

g. End of second season's growth. 

1. Study how the top is formed and pruned in 
Fig. 83. 

2. The tree may be spread or contracted, by 
cutting to a bud which points inward or out- 
ward. 

3. Prune second year's growth back from 1/3 
to 1/2 of their original length in the winter 
or spring of the third year. 

4. "When the growth is eight inches or less, 
heading-back should be less. Fig. 82.— shows 

5. This will leave a properly shaped frame 
upon which the crown is to 
be grown, leaving the most 
central one as a leader, 
which should be pruned 
from four to six inches 
longer than the others. 

6. What may seem an open 
head when young may 
prove, when the trees are 
older, to be too dense and 
crowded. 

h. End of the third season's 
growth. 





Fig-. 81. — Shows a three 
branch tree at the end of 
the first season's growth. 




the 



Select from two to three 
limb's for each branch of the 




two years' 



-Shows plan 
growth. 



top after 



frame, removing the superfluous, broken, or crossed limbs. 
Cut third year's growth back from one-third to one-half of 
their length in the spring of the fourth year. 



104 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



3. The leader should be maintained, and the top carefully 
formed in order to prevent heavy growth in undesirable 
places. 

4. The next year or two, pruning should only differ from the 
last described, in that the shortening of limbs should be less 
each year and the crown thinned out more as years pass. 

5. More attention should be given the location of the fruit spurs 
after the third year. 

6. In all pruning of young trees care should be taken that no two 
limbs should emerge opposite one another thus forming a bad 
crotch. 

7. Cut out every limb that forms a closed crotch. 

8. Cut every limb to a bud so that no dead stubs will be left, 
i. Forms of top. 

1. The pyramidal form is the opposite of the vase form in that 
the main stock or leading shoot of the tree is allowed to 
maintain its upright growth and the side branches are short- 
ened back so as to produce the form of a pyramid, as shown 
in Fig. 71. 

2. Intermediate form is between the vase and the pyramid, 
which gives a round, symmetrical shape to the tree and suf- 
ficiently open to allow free circulation of air and sunlight, as 
shown in Fig. 72. 

3. The vase or goblet form, which is obtained by cutting out the 
central stock or leader and training by a system of pruning 
into the shape as shown in Fig. 84. 

4. The half-vase form with 
a leader exposes almost 
all the fruit and is a more 
profitable shape, easier 
to support and more nat- 
ural. 

j. Balance top. 

1. Study the tree with the 
idea of pruning it and 
leaving it with a well 
balanced head. 

2. Do not let one side, with- 
out it be the side toward 
the wind, be heavier than 
another side. 

3. Do not cut off a single 
limb without there is a 
good reason for it. 
4. Endeavor to prune and 
shape the tree so that 
there will not be long 
leaders formed. 

5. This is accomplished, not 
by heading-in, but by cut- 
ting back the leaders to 




Fig-, 



Vase form. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 105 

three or more laterals, thus making two or three leaders each 
out of the three or more laterals. 

6. These lateral leaders, in turn, should be treated the same 
way, some will have to be thinned out, however. 

7. By following this method, strong, sturdy main branches 
may be formed, giving more room for fruit to be borne upon, 
and also less chance for the fruit to be whipped off by the 
wind. 

8. Don't forget to make a clean cut when severing a limb from 
the tree. 

9. Cover the cut over with white lead which has been thinned 
with oil. 

10. Method of root pruning' after several years of growth. 

a. The operation is performed by digging out a circular trench at 
a distance of from 3 to 6 feet from the stem, according to the 
size and age of the tree, and from 2 to 4 feet in depth, cutting 
all the roots that may be encountered or can be reached. 

b. If but few strong roots are met with, and if it appears evident 
that the strong taproots exist, the soil should be undermined 
with a sharp mattock, severing all the strong roots that can be 
reached; the soil is then returned being well firmed as the 
trench is filled, and the process is completed. 

c. Effects of root pruning". 

1. Stimijilation of fruit buds. 

a. When a tree has attained to a fruit bearing size and shows 
no indication of fruiting, but continues to maintain a vig- 
orous growth of branches and is evidently barren as the 
result of excessive luxuriance, judicious root pruning will 
have the effect of encouraging formation of fruit buds. 

b. Trees in this condition, if root pruned about the middle of 
July, will receive a check to growth which will cause for- 
mation of fruiting buds during the fall and show a flow- 
ering disposition the following spring. 

11. Summer pruning. 

a. It should be done the last of June or early July. 

b. It may encourage the formation of fruit buds on tardy bearing 
varieties but it may have the opposite effect unless it is done at 
the proper time. 

c. All watersprouts, cross limbs, and unnecessary limbs should be 
removed. 

d. Young trees that are making vigorous growths may be headed 
back causing side branches to develop and making a round- 
shaped top. 

e. Such varieties as Spitzenberg and Yellow Newtown, that are 
slow to come into bearing, may be headed-back when they are 
five or six years old. 

12. References. 

a. See references under orchard planting. 



106 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



a. 



e. 



PRUNING THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF FRUIT TREES. 
General principles. !• Apples. 

Attention must be given not only to the height and formation 
of the head, but to the removal of wood as well. 
The apple iDears its fruit on spurs which are themselves devel- 
oped from wood two or more years of age. 

The removal of wood which carries fruit spurs reduces the crop 
that the tree is capable of bearing. 

d. Pruning lessens the annual growth and forces the energy of the 
plant into the fruit. 

6. Prolific varieties should be heavily pruned. 
2. Pruning different varieties. 

a. Because of their slim twigs, the Limber Twig, Willow Twig, 
Geneton, Rome Beauty and Yellow Bellflower have to be headed 
back more than most other varieties, because they have a tend- 
ency to make long limbs without branching, or with few 
branches. 

b. Heading-in a bearing fruit tree produces an excessive growth 
of new wood, which is in the wrong place, causing the tree to 
become dense, shading the fruit, and producing an inferior 
quality. 

The fruit spurs, when the tree is headed-back, as well as the 
fruit twigs, are apt to spring into growth and thus develop 
water sprouts, which next year have to be cut off. 
The Stayman Winesap, King of Tompkin's County, Spitzenberg 
and Red Cheek Pippin must frequently be headed-in more se- 
verely than the average tree. 

.Upright growth. 
1. King of Tompkin's County, Northern Spy, Rome Beauty, R. 



c. 




Fig. 85. — Shows a Rhode Island Green- 
ing of two seasons' growth. 




Fig 



Same as Fig. S5 pruned. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



107 



I. Greening, Spitzenberg, Wagner, Grimes Golden, York Im- 
perial, Newtown Pippin, Northwest Greening, Yellow Bell- 
flower, Gano, Tolman's Sweet, Wealthy, Wolf River, Yellow 
Transparent, Red Astrachan, Red June, Mcintosh Red, De- 
licious, Winter Banana, Red Cheek Pippin, sweet cherries 
and some plums. 
These frequently require heading-out to spread them. 




Fig. 87. — Same as Fig 
seasons' growth. 



3. Questions. 

a. How are the above 
trees pruned to make 
spreading tops? 

b. Do they appear to 
have a heavy 
growth ? 

c. Have they a well- 
balanced top? 

d. Are the above trees 
pruned according to 
the rules of pruning 
for heading-out? 

4. Study the White Pear- 
man, a good type of up- 
right growth. 

a. It is a strong grower. 

b. Does not bear heavy 
on young spurs. 

c. Fruit spurs are dis- 
tributed along the 
larger limbs. 

d. Some varieties do 
not need heavy prun- 
ing. 



having four Fig. 88. — Same as Fig. 87 pruned. 

(Cuts 85, 86, 87, 88, from Pruning Book, 
by Bailey.) 




a White Pearmain 
and Whipple.) 



108 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 




Fl£ 



5. Summer pruning in- 
cites fruitfulness, but 
not always satisfactory. 

6. Unfruitful varieties 
may be forced to bear 
by planting on light 
soil. 

f. Spreading growth. 

1. Jonathan, Limber Twig, 
Willow Twig, Geneton, 
etc. 

2. Some which are not so 
bad are the Maiden 
Blush, Fameuse, Stay- 
man Winesap, Graven- 
stein, Hyde's King, Al- 
exander, King David, 
Arkansas Black and 
sour cherries. 

3. May require heading-in 
to compact their tops. 

4. Study the Jonathan, a 
good type of growth. 

a. Some varieties, as 
Winesap and Mis- 
souri Pippin are prolific growers and require severe heading- 
back to prevent spindling tops. 

b. The stocky limbs are better to bear fruit buds than the spindling 
ones. 

e. Varieties that bloom heavily but set very little' fruit, should be 
treated as overbears and heavily prune during dormant season, 
g. Compare the Jonathan with the White Pearmain. 
3. Annual and biennial crops. 

a. Judicious pruning, as has been pointed out, not only facilitates 
the work of cultivation, and spraying, but at the same time de- 
termines to a very considerable extent the fruiting habits of the 
tree. 

b. The quantity of bearing wood which a tree carries can be modi- 
fied by pruning so that it will be practically impossible for the 
top to retain more fruit in any given season than the roots are 
capable of supplying with a proper amount of nourishment. 

c. Orehardists in general are coming to believe that the reason for 
the biennial crop in many orchards is due to the fact that during 
the crop year the trees are allowed to overbear and that their 
vitality is therefore so much reduced that it is impossible for 
fruit buds to set a satisfactory crop the succeeding year. 

d. The thinning of the fruit, with the result that a crop is borne 
each year, has convinced practical growers that over-bearing is 
the cause of the biennial fruit production. 



3. — Shows Jonathan well headed-in. 
(Paddock and Whipple.) 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



109 




Fig-. 9 1.— 
Shows where to 
cut back at 
time of plant- 
ing. 



2. Pear. 

1. General principles. 

a. What has been said of the apple applies well to the 
pear. 

b. Mature pear trees need little pruning. 

c. Fruit bearing of the pear is practically the same 
as the apple. 

d. With proper training there is no reason why the 
pear tree may not be grown with a moderately 
broad and low head. 

e. The forming of the tree belongs to the province of 
pruning the young tree ; but a little judicious head- 
ing-back practiced on the old tree, taking care to 
cut to outside buds or branches, will improve on an 
undesirable form. 

f. When it becomes necessary to head-back the large 
pear trees, always cut to side limbs and do not 
make the mistake of choosing an "off year" to do 
this severe pruning; a heavy crop tends to check 
rampant growth encouraged by vigorous pruning. 

g. The practice of the most successful growers is to 
cut the tree back each year and remove some of 
the new wood that may have been forced by the 
last pruning. 

h. The main object of pruning the mature tree should be to thin 
the fruit and thus improve the quality, as well as to encourage 
more regular bearing. 

2. Pruning- the stem. 

a. Cut back the young tree as soon as it 
has been planted to the height from 12 
to 18 inches. 

b. The cutting back will cause several of the 
upper buds to break and grow. 

3. Main branches. 

a. In forming the head of the pear, how- 
ever, more branches may be left than in 
the case of the apple. 

b. While three is given as the 
ideal number for the apple, 
as many as four to eight 
may be retained by a well- 
grown pear tree. 

e. These should be distributed 

about the body so as to give 

practically an equal space 

between them, and, if pos- 
sible, they should stand at 

different heights upon the 

main stem. 
d. The number of branches to 

be left upon any particular pj^ 92.-shows 

tree must, however, be de- tree. The lines show where to cut back 

at time of pruning 




two-year-old pear 



no 



MANUAL OF HOETICULTURE 



termined by the condition of the roots, 
e. The strongest shoots should be left at equal distances apart 

around the stem and should tend obliquely outward so as to 

spread and make an open head. 
Forming- the top. 

a. A low-headed pear tree is quite as desirable as a low-headed 
apple tree. 

b. As the tree grows older it will be found that the original growth 
of the annual shoots will reduce themselves in many cases to 6 
or 8 inches in length. 

c. This is due to the fact that the energy of the roots are distrib- 
uted through a large number of branches, rather than to a few. 

d. By adhering to the following system of pruning a symmetrical, 
broad-headed tree can be secured, and as fruit bearing increases 
the framework branches will tend to become more and more 
drooping. 

e. The plan of pruning for the first four years should be in cutting 
back one-half of the last year's growth. 

f. The orchardist should keep clearly in mind the form of a tree 
that is desired; for what seems to be an open head when the 
tree is young may prove to be too dense and crowded when 
older. 



g 



The branches should 
not be too close to- 
gether. 

The upright growing 
varieties should be 
headed-out. 

The slender, straggling 
growth should be head- 
ed-in. 

All pruning and train- 
ing should be done 
when the tree is young. 
Each branch should, at 
the close of the first 
season, be treated as 
though it were a separ- 
ate plant, and the num- 
ber of shoots which it 
has developed be re- 
duced to three or more, 
and these in turn short- 
ened to at least one- 
half of last year's 
growth. 

This operation should 
be repeated from year 
to year until the tree 
comes into full bearing, 
when less shortening 
will be required. 




Kig-. 93. — Shows a top- 
(Paddock and Whipple.) 



grafted pear tree. — 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUEE 111 

5. Forms of tops. 

a. Fig. 84. 

b. The vase form or some modification of it has been found to be 
best suited for the pear tree. 

6. Fig. 93 shows top grafted tree. 

a. The best time for grafting is just as the buds are beginning to 
swell. 

b. It shows a two-year-old top grafted on the small limbs. 

c. The larger lower limbs were removed later. 

7. It is well known that orchard trees in general, tend to make their 
greatest growth near the extremity of the heading branches. 

8. The leaders are the strongest growers and it is frequently a diffi- 
cult task to stimulate lateral branches to grow sufficiently to pre- 
serve a symmetrical development in the tree. 

9. The manner of cutting back the annual growth on the various parts 
of the tree must be carefully studied in order to preserve the sym- 
metrical development desired. 

10. Heavy pruning in the dormant season will stop the shedding or 
thinning of the blooms or the young fruit as there is less shedding 
from trees that bear good crops. 

3. Quince. 

1. General principles. 

a. Young quince trees generally receive no training until planted. 

b. The flowers are co-terminal, borne on this spring's new wood. 

c. Heading-in necessarily thins the fruit. 

2. Pruning- the stem. 

a. It should be cut back near to the ground and a single upright 
stem allowed to grow. 

b. Severe pruning will aid in securing a good shaped tree. 

3. Main branches. 

a. A distinct trunk is generally preferred instead of a bush form. 

b. The main trunk should divide into several branches a few feet 
above the ground, which should subdivide, etc. 

4. Forming the top. 

a. Almost like the peach. 

b. Among the fruit trees herein considered, the quince has a fruit 
bearing habit peculiar to itself. 

c. With the advance of spring the dormant buds on the one-year- 
old wood push out leafy shoots from three to four inches in 
length and these are terminated by a single flower. 

d. While both axillary and terminal buds produce these flower- 
bearing shoots, the stronger flowers come from the axillary buds 
on the last half of the annual growth ; terminal buds more fre- 
quently give rise to branches or weak flower-bearing shoots. 

e. While with some varieties the plant assumes a tree-form quite 
readily, others are, at their best, only a bush. 

f. A course of severe pruning for the young tree, however, will aid 
the grower in securing a desirable shaped tree. 

g. When the tree has reached a bearing age it should be pruned 
annually by thinning out the new wood and clipping the re- 
maining back to about two-thirds of its legnth. 

h. With proper pruning, the quince should produce annual growths 
from twelve to twenty-four inches in length. 




112 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

4. Peach. 

1. General principles. 

a. The peach is a stronger and more rapid grower than the apple 
or the pear. 

b. Yearling peach trees are considered more satisfactory by orch- 
ardists than older trees. 

c. These young plants are usually reduced to a single 
stem or whip at planting time. 

d. The head being formed from the shoots which de- 
velop along the body of the tree during the first 
year of its growth. 

e. It is an easy matter to go over the newly planted 
tree and rub off such shoots as are not desired. 

f. The peach suffers greatly from neglect and responds 
readily to careful treatment. 

2. Pruning the stem. 

a. Practically the same rule that holds for pruning 
the stems of the apple and the pear is adhered to in ^ ^ ^^ 
pruning the stem of the peach. Fig. 95. ^^^ / 9'4l_ 

b. Fig. 96 shows a well pruned tree the second season Pea^ch ^tree 
after it was planted. nursery. 

c Two-year-old tree pruned for shape rather than 
fruit. 

d. It is necessary to prune severely and possibly to 
outside buds or branches to secure a top well 
spread and the fruit wood near the ground. 

e. The pruner should constantly keep before him 
an ideal form for peach tree. 

3. Main branches. 

a. See apple and pear. pig. gs/shows 

tr6*6 T) X* u n 6 cl 

4. Forming of the tops. ready to plant. 

a. Ordinarily it will be found most satisfactory to prune the peach 
so as to make a broad, round-headed tree. 

b. The fruit is always borne on the outside buds or upon the new 
wood of the tree. 

c. The peach tree needs more heading-back and 
continual pruning than any other fruit tree. 

d. Study the location of buds before pruning. 
6. There is a strong tendency in the terminal 

buds to push upward and outward, at the ex- .- 

pense of the lateral shoots, which soon die. Fig. le, ~lo-w 

liea.(i6d trcG. Two- 

f. It leaves the tree in time with long bare poles, and Whipple.) 
with only tufts of leaves at their extremities, ^''e af-o i f ^w e n 

g. It is necessary to head-back each year, in order to furnish a con- 
tinued supply of young wood, evenly distributed throughout the 
top. 

h. At the close of winter or early spring, cut off about four-fifths 
of last year's growth. 





MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



113 



J. 



1. 



This will thin out the fruit buds by one-third or one-half, but 
the fruit will be so much larger and of finer quality. 
The division between the one-year-old growth and two-year-old 
growth is marked by the color of the bark and leaf sears. 
The annual growth should be at least 18 inches. 
5. Freezing and frost. 

a. It frequently happens that the freezes are severe enough to re- 
duce the annual growth as much as it is desirable to reduce it 
by pruning, and had the pruning been done before the freezing 
occurred, there might have been an entire loss of the peach crop. 

b. When pruning is delayed until all danger of freezing is past, the 
pruning can be gauged so as to reduce the fruit bearing wood in 
proportion to the capacity of the tree. 

c. The peach bears singly, rather than upon fruit spurs, as in the 
ease with the apple and pear. 

d. For this reason, therefore, the heading-back of the peach trees 
plays an important part in thinning the crop. 
Winter killed peach trees may be rejuvenated by cutting back. 
Clipping back and thinning should be done after the danger of 
frost is past. 

Where the injury to the new, and even old growth, is severe, the 
importance of this cannot be too strongly urged, even if there 
be but a few live buds left upon the tree and the smaller twigs 
and limbs be entirely killed. 

It is better to head them back, than to allow them to exhaust 
themselves in the endeavor to develop a crop and at the same 
time make a new growth. 

If the fruit bud is killed, the pistil turns black or brown; if 
alive, the pistil is green. 



e. 
f. 





Fig. 97, First year's growth, fall of Fig. 98, Same as Fig. 97. Properly 
1901, low-headed. pruned in March, 1902. 



114 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTimE 



6. The following cuts will illustrate the growth and method of prun- 
ing the peach tree for several years. 

(The cuts marked W.R.B. are from Maryland Experiment Station.) 
a. The end of the first year's growth. 

1. How did the tree in Fig. 97 look when planted ? 

2. The stem after it is planted is cut back to about one foot in 




Fig. 100, Same as Fig-. 99. Properly pruned, Marcla, 1903. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



115 



length and is allowed to divide into three or five branches 

during the next season's growth. 
3. The same heading-back and multiplication of the branches 

takes place the next year. 
The end of the second year's growth. 

1. 3 to 5 branches should be left to form the framework of the 
tree, and the others cut off close to the trunk. 

2. The limbs retained should be distributed around the trunk, 
each pointing in different directions. 

3. About three-fourths of the length of last year's growth is cut 
off and the cut is made just above a side limb. 

4. Note how the top has grown in one year. 

5. Compare Fig. 99 and Fig. 97. 

6. Plenty of fruiting wood left ; good framework for a product- 
ive tree. 

7. It will broaden out a little more, if properly pruned in the 
top. 





Fig-. 102, Shows the same as Fig. 
101 properly pruned and headed- 
back. 

(Paddock and Whipple.) 



Fig. 101, Shows a peach tree two 
years old before pruning. 

(Paddock and Whipple.) 

8, Study how Fig. 101 was properly pruned and headed-back. 

9, How are the leaders pruned ? 

10. Is width of top greater than the height? 
. The end of third year's growth, 

1. Same principles that are used in the second year. 

2. Surplus branches and dead and broken limbs must be re- 
moved. 

3. The leaders and long side limbs must be shortened-in to keep 
the top low, strong and spreading. 

4. Side limbs with bearing twigs must not be pruned. 

5. All cuts should be made just above a side limb or bud. 

6. Prunijig should be from top downward. 

7. Cuts should be made right up to the trunk or supporting 
branches. 

8. Wound one inch across or larger should be covered with 
paint or grafting wax. 



jMANual of horticulture 




Fig-. 104, Same as Fig. 103 well pruned. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



117 



r^d. Study shape of top, leaders, and how to prune it. 

10. Study how the leaders are cut back. 

11. Study how the top is thinned by heading-back and out. 
d. Pruning four-year-old trees. 

1. See second and third years. 




Fig lua, Shows a neglected four-year- Fig. 106, Same as Fig 105 properly 
a peach tree. (Paddock and Whipple.) pruned. (Paddock and Whipple.) 



old peach 



2. Tell how Fig. 105 was pruned. 

3. Study the shape, top, leaders, and how to prune trees that are 
four years old 




Vig. 107, Shows a five-year-old ISlberta never pruned. 



118 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



e. Pruning five-year-old trees. 

1. See second and third years. 

2. Note the long-legged, Ijare-branehed, high-topped tree. 

3. How should it be pruned by heading-out or heading-in. 




4. Study now the tree was pruned and explain why certain 
branches were cut off. 
7. Low-headed tree. 




a. Fig. 109 shows a well-trained, low-headed tree. 

(Paddock and Whipple.) 



jmanual of horticulture 



119 



br The top forms a right angle and the spread is double the height. 

c. The productiveness is increased by forming a spreading top 
rather than a high top. 

Dehorning large limbs. 

a. Fig. 110 shows how 
to dehorn old trees. 

b. T h e rejuvenating 
old peach trees is an 
important principle 
and should be care- 
fully considered be- 
fore it is undertak- 
en. 

e. The best time is 
when the crop has 
been killed by late 
frost. 

d. It should be done as 
soon as possible af- 
ter the loss. 

6. Rejuvenating and 
dehorning are neces- 
sarily the same in 
their mode of opera- 
tion. 

f . A 1 1 adventitious 
growth and suckers 
should be removed 
as soon as they begin 
to form. 
The equilibrium of 




Fig. 



g 



110, Shows dehorning- larg-e limbs. 
(Paddock and Whipple.) 

the tree has been so much upset by the heavy pruning that wa- 
ter sprouts and suckers may arise for several years. 
Bracing-. 

a. The limbs of two scaffold 
branches that need to be 
braced are twisted together as 
tightly as possible. 

b. Many trees are easily braced 
in above manner. 

c. The limbs that are twisted to- 
gether will produce fruit spurs. 

d. Fig. Ill shows how to brace a 
top by lising wire braces. 



Fig. Ill, Shows how to 
wire-brace a top. 




120 



]\'IANUAL OF HORTICULTUP.r: 



5. Apricot. 

1. General principles. 

a. The general plan of planting and pruning the apricot will re- 
semble the peach but not quite as severe in pruning. 

b. Young apricot trees that are strong growers must be put 
through about the same course of pruning as the young peach. 

e. Pruning the apricot like the peach, will strengthen the frame 
branches and develop a broad, low-headed tree. 

d. Sometimes, simply heading-back the new strong growth will be 
sufficient to keep the fruiting wood growing thriftily. 

2. Forming' the top. 

a. Follow the plan of the peach. 

3. Study the location of fruit-buds. 

a. Fruit buds are developed in the axils of the leaves on 

1. Shortened spur-like twigs. 

2. Stronger growing branches. 

3. Both of current season's growth. 

b. Fruit spurs develop no true terminal buds. 

c. Lateral bud may be a fruit bud or a branch bud. 

6. Cherry. 
1. General principles. 

a. The planting and pruning the cherry will resemble the apple 
but not quite as severe in pruning. 

b. The cherry tree is hardy and readily adapts itself to varied con- 
ditions. 

c. The cherry tree should have a rather dry sandy loam to light 
clay loam ; rich in mineral plant food but poor in nitrogen, with 
a porous subsoil, well drained. 

d. The cherry requires little pruning after the first two or three 
years. 

e. Forming the top. 

1. Some prefer to have a low-spreading top composed of from 
three to five branches. 





Fig. 113 shows the top ot a sour cherry. 



SIANUAL OE HOETICULTUE.E 121 

2. The fruiting area should be kept as near the ground as possi- 
ble ; to shade the trunk, to prevent sun-seald, and to encour- 
age the growth of the fruiting wood throughout the entire 
top. 

3. The sweet and semi-sweet varieties are upright growers and 
should be headed back to keep them within bounds. 

4. The sour varieties are spreading growers and should be head- 
ed-in. 

5. The growing of weak fruit-buds is a sign that the tree is not 
pruned enough; heavy pruning during the dormant season 
will often correct the fault. 

6. Lack of bloom is generally due to excessive pruning or to 
much water. 

7. Study the location of fruit buds. 

a. See Apricot. 

b. Fruit is borne on one-year-old wood, and also mostly on 
short growths, or spurs. 

c. Spurs carry. 

1. Terminal buds which are generally a branch bud. 

2. Axillary buds which are generally a fruit bud. 

d. The fruit buds are found as axillary buds near the base of 
the strong-growing new wood. 

7. Plum. 
1. General principles. 

a. The varieties ; as, Burbank, Abundance, Salsuma, Red June, and 
others of the Japanese groups resemble the apricot in system 
of pruning. 

b. The Domestica plums represented by the prunes are pruned very 
little, except the varieties that over bear require a certain 
amount of thinning out. 

e. The habit of the plum to bear early and abundantly under fav- 
orable conditions limits its annual growth so that little pruning 
is necessary other than to remove dead or interfering limbs or 
to head back an occasional strong shoot which may appear from 
time to time in the center of the crown. 

d. The plum, as well as the cherry, has the annoying habit of oc- 
casionally producing strong shoots from adventitious buds along 
the trunk of the tree or from near the surface of the ground. 

e. A close watch should be kept for such interlopers in order that 
they may be promptly removed. 

f. In the early period of the growth, the annual growth will need 
more or less severe cutting back, depending upon the soil and 
climatic conditions, in order to maintain them within bounds 

g. On general principles, this heading should be done just before 
the growth starts in the spring. 

2. Forming- the top. 

a. Some varieties require heading-out to spread the tops. 

b. Other varieties require heading-in to compact the tops. 

c. They should be low-headed to protect the trunk from sun-scald 

d. There should be annual heading-back and thinning out to force 
strong new growth. 



122 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

3, Study the location of fruit-buds. 

a. No terminal buds, with few exceptions. 

b. Last axillary bud is generally a branch bud, except on weak 
spurs. 

c. Branch or spur is the growth of last year's bud. 

d. Fruit buds are developed in the axils of the leaves on both spurs 
and ranker growing new wood. 

References. 

1. See references under planting an orchard. 

2. Send to the Washington Nursery Co., Toppenish, Wash., for a com- 
plete descriptive book of the different varieties of fruit; of orna- 
mentals, shrubs, vines, shade trees, flowering plants and bulbs. 

THINNING. 

1. Object: 

a. To maintain the vigor of the trees. 

b. To secure annual crops instead of alternate. 

c. To produce fruit of maximum size, color and quality. 

d. To increase commercial value. 

2. Methods: 

a. Pruning". 

1. Study the location and habits of the fruit buds of the differ- 
ent classes of fruit trees. 

2. Remove the superfluous branches. 

3. Winter pruning tends to produce wood. 

4. Summer pruning tends to produce fruit by checking the 
growth of the branches. 

5. Successful fruit growers understand the importance of prun- 
ing to gauge the quantity of fruit allowed to be borne by a 
tree to the capacity of the tree. 

6. The ability of the tree in this respect is measured by the 
growth, the variety, the soil and climatic conditions, to which 
it is subjected. 

7. Pruning the co-terminal fruit-bearing plants; those which 
bear their fruit upon the growth which grows the same year 
the fruit does and which springs from last year's growth. 

8. If fruit spurs or twigs burst into growth, it is usually best to 
head them back each year to their original length, rather than 
cut them off entirely. 

9. Remember, that fruit spurs bear fruit and not leaves and 
when they are cut off, the tree is not only thinned but the 
fruit bearing region can never be grown on again. 

10. It should be here noted that the tendency to grow rapidly is 
the most pronounced in young .trees, hence the pruning 
should be more severe than in old trees of the same variety, 

11. The disadvantage of pruning to thin the fruit is that you do 
not know how many buds or young fruit may subsequently 
be destroyed by disease or cold. 

12. Properly pruned trees generally need little thinning of fruit. 

13. Thin out the trees that are too close in the tree rows. 




MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE . 123 

b. Hand-thinning- of apples. 

1. Picking off redundant fruits. 

2. Requirements vary with dif- 
ferent individual trees and 
with the same tree at differ- 
ent season. 

3. Important conditions. 

a. The different varieties. 

b. Age and condition of 
trees. 

c. Amount of fruit whicn 
has set. 

d. Distribution of fruit on 
trees. 

4. The ways of thinning-. 

a. To remove all wormv and ■^*^- ^^*' shows a Winesap branch 
a,. J.U leiuuve au wormy ana three feet long- before and after thin- 

mierior specimens. nlng-. (Colorado Exp. Station.) 

b. To remove all terminal fruit on long, slender branches. 

c. To remove all limb-bruised and frost-marked fruit. 

d. To remove all but one fruit from each cluster. 

5. Distance for apples. Fig. 114. 

a. Some varieties are thinned from 9 to 10 inches apart on 
old trees. 

b. Other varieties are thinned from 6 to 8 inches apart on 
young trees. 

e. Proper distance prevents limb-bruised fruit caused by 
wind. 

d. The size of the fruit determines in a measure the distance 
that the fruit should be left apart on the limb. 

6. Principle of alternation. 

a. All the fruit should be removed from some of the spurs. 

b. This gives the spurs time to form strong fruit buds for the 
succeeding year. 

c. The older the tree, the more fixed is the habit of alterna- 
tion of bearing fruit, hence thinning should be commenced 
as early in its growth as possible. 

7. Time to thin. 

a. Natural thinning takes place in June — ''June Drop." 

b. Generally after June Drop. 

c. June and early July is the proper season to thin apples 
and pears. 

8. Commence at the top of the tree and work down. 

9. Fruit on lower limbs next to the trunk should be thinned a 

little farther apart on account of the shade. 

10. In thinning always ''look up and not down." 

11. Be sure that every branch is so thinned that it will support 
a load of natural fruit. 

12. Fruit spurs with terminal fruit buds, as those of the apple 
and pear, generally bear only alternate years, and if the 
spurs are all full of fruit one year, the next may be an " off 
year." 

13. Not only do the spurs fail to bear annually, but if the tree is 



124 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

overloaded, spurs that produce bloom, even though they fail 
to set fruit, may not be sufficiently nourished to produce fruit 
buds for the following season. 

14. If the tree bears only a moderate crop of fruit, spurs that 
produce bloom but no fruit, often develop fruit buds the 
same season. 

15. Where the tree is bearing a light load, spurs may mature 
fruit and develop fruit buds the same season. 

a. Much depends upon the general thrift of the trees, and, 
as in pruning, the grower will have to learn much by ex- 
perience, 

16. Some thin to leave the fruits so far apart, but a rule fixing 
a certain space between apples will not hold good in all cases. 

17. If we were always sure the tree had been properly pruned, 
we might be able to give a satisfactory rule to be followed, 
leaving the fruits so many inches apart. 

18. Suppose you decide that the trees should produce ten boxes 
of fancy fruit each. 

a. Fairly uniform grade of apples ranging from two and one- 
half to three inches in diameter will pack from 96 to 125 
to the box and by thinning two or three trees and leaving 
from 960 to 1250 apples, actually counting them or esti- 
mating them as closely as possible, one learns what a tree 
properly thinned should look like. 

b. With these trees as a model it is surprising how close one 
can come to leaving just the right number. 

c. I think it is possible, by careful work, to come within a 
box of the ideal. 

d. By knowing how much the tree should produce is where 
the experience counts. 

c. Hand-thinning of pears. 

1. Methods of thinning pears differ little from methods of thin- 
ning apples. 

2. As a rule, the pear tree will produce about as many boxes of 
pears as will the apple tree of the same age produce boxes of 
apples. 

3. The fruit is generally picked on the installment plan, and it 
is possible to mature a large crop of fancy fruit; and fruit 
that is small may be left until it reaches the decided size. 

4. Pears running from 135 to 150 to the box are considered ideal 
size, and pears for such a pack must measure from two and 
one-fourth to two and three-fourths inches in diameter. 

5. Pears larger than three inches are really not as desirable for 
the fancy fruit trade as those of smaller size. 

d. Hand-thinning of peaches. 

1. In growing peaches much of the thinning is done with the 
pruning shears during the pruning season, but additional 
hand-thinning is absolutely necessary. 

2. The thinning should be done before the foliage gets too heavy 
and before the pits begin to harden. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 125 

3, The pruning shears may be used as a help in thinning, and 
fruiting wood not necessarily needed may be removed en- 
tirely. 




Fig. 115, Shows how to thin an Alexander peach tree. 

4. Fig. 115 shows the results of thinning. 

a. Upper left — neither pruned nor thinned. 

b. Upper right— moderately pruned, thinned to 4 inches. 

c. Lower right— moderately pruned, thinned to 6-8 inches. 

d. Lower left— heavily pruned, thinned to 6-8 inches. 

5. A good grade of peaches should run less than 90 to the box, 
and M^e may say it seldom pays to ship smaller fruit. 

6. A size that will pack less than 80 to the box is desirable. 
The market demands generally what you do not have. 

a. When there is a large crop of fruit, there is an over-supply of 
small fruit — ^thin accordingly. 

b. When there is a small crop of fruit, there is usually an over- 
supply of large fruit — thin accordingly. 

Questions. 

a. Does heavy seed production cause trees to bear crops one year 
and lessen the amount of fruit the following year ? 

b. Do fruit spurs produce fruit and fruit buds the same year? 

c. How are fruit buds produced ? 

d. What effect on fruit buds if the fruit spurs produce a full crop 
of fruit? ^ 

e. How many boxes of apples should a tree produce? Pears? 
Peaches ? 

f . What effect has sunshine on fruit ? 



126 



MANUAL OF HORTIGULTURE 



h. 



b. 
c. 
d. 
e. 
f. 
g- 



What causes one side of a tree to bear fruit lightly and the 

other side heavily ? 

Does the fruit tree furnish the same amount of plant food to 

the fruit that is left after thinning as before thinning? 
References. 
a. The Pruning Book by Bailey. 

The Principles of Fruit Growing by Bailey. 

Fruit Growing by Paddock and Whipple. 

Colorado Bulletin No. 139. 

Colorado Bulletin No. 170. 

New York Bulletin No. 77. 

Montana Bulletin No. 77. 
h. Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 106. 

1. GRAPE CULTURE. 
a. Propagation. 

1. Cuttings. 

a. See Propagation. 

b. Make cuttings of the last season's grovvth as soon as the vines 
are matured. 

c. Let the cuttings be from 8 to 20 inches long ; the hotter and drier 
the climate, the longer the cuttings. 

d. Make the cuttings from young, well-matured, medium-sized and 
short- jointed wood. 

e. Cut just below the lower bud, making the cut slanting, and about 
one inch above the upper bud to keep the bud from drying out. 

f. Tie in small bundles (butts one way) and heel in or set in trench- 

es (butt ends up) and cover with three to six inches of dirt, 
g. Inverting the bundles causes the tops to remain dormant while 

the butts callous, 
h. When the cuttings are planted in the spring, the rootlets readily 

grow before the tops. 
i. If this is not done the tops start to grow before their roots form 

to support them, 
j. Plant in the spring in deeply plowed and mellow ground, in 

rows three to four feet apart and the cuttings three to four 

inches apart in the rows, 
k. Place so deep that but one eye or bud remains above the ground. 
1. Keep the soil clear of weeds, cultivating very often, 
m. Do not irrigate often, but cultivate constantly. 

2. Laying. 



c. 



See Propagation. 
This method is 
usually followed 
in the Eotundi- 
folia vines and a 
few others which 
do not start read- 
ily from cuttings. 
Choose a cane of 
last season's 
growth Avhich has 
started near the 




Fi.£ 



116, A vine with two canes layered, showing the 
method of propagation by layers. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



127 



base of the vine, and fasten down in a trench about three 
inches deep. 

d. Each bud on the cane will usually produce a shoot growing 
upward. 

e. After the shoots are well started and rooted at the base, the 
trench should be filled with soil, 

f. A slight incision opposite each shoot will assist the formation 
of roots. 

g. During the fall or winter the plants may be taken up and 
divided. 

8. Graftingf. 

a. See propagation, 
b. This is done by cleft grafting or veneer grafting, if on large 

stocks as top-working ; tongue grafting, if upon small roots, 
e. Treat as in regular nursery practice. 

b. Planting- a vineyard. 

1. Time of planting. 

a. The spring is the best time to set out grape plants. 

2. Selection of plants. 

a. Two years old vines are the most popular for planting. 

b. Yearlings of the strong growing varieties, as the Concord and 
Niagara are frequently planted. 

c. The vines should be free from diseases. 

3. Varieties. 

a. The Concord and its family, Brighton, Niagara are strong 
growers. 

b. The Catawba is a very strong and upright grower. 

c. The Black July, Sweet-water and Delaware are weak growers. 

d. By careful computation it has been found that the greatest 
yield of grapes is from the fourth to the sixth buds inclusive 
of the Concord ; from the seventh to the ninth of the Niagara 
Delaware and Brighton. ' 
With this idea in mind they should be 
pruned and no more than twelve buds 
to the cane should be left. 

4. Distance to plant. 

a. Strong growing ones are usually plant- 
ed eight to ten feet apart in the rows 
and the rows from eight to nine feet 
apart. 

b. Delawares and other small growing 
vines are planted closer. 

5. Before planting". 

a. The roots should be cut back to 3 to 4 
inches. 

b. One cane should be left and 
it should be cut back to two 
or three buds and let grow 
on the ground the first year. 

e. All suckers and scion roots 
on grafts should be removed. 

6. Set out the plants, 
a. The top bud should only 



e. 



project above the ground. 




Fig-. 117. _..„ „ , 

roots ready for planting. 



showing- wjiere to prune the 



128 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

b. If cuttings are planted, set two in each place in order to get a 

stand, it is easy to pull one out if both grow, 
e. The hole should be broad and rounded up in the center of the 

bottom, 
d. Fine pulverized soil should be put around the plant, 
c. Grape Terminology. 

Z 




Fig-. 118 shows the different parts of a four-cane system of training. 

1. Nomenclature, Fig. 118. 

a. A's are the arms and are two or more years old. 

b. B's are the branches of matured wood and may be several 
years old. 

c. C's are canes, called shoots when green and canes when ma- 
tured. 

d. L's are the laterals, the secondary shoots of a cane. 

e. S's are suckers, the shoots starting below the ground, from the 
main body. 

f. T is the trunk, stem, or main body of the vine. 

g. "W.S.'s are water sprouts which start from wood older than one 
year. 

h. The two-year-old arms are 1, 2, 3 and 4. 
i. The basal eye or bud is near the base of the cane and it is not 

counted in reckoning the number of eyes on a fruit spur, 
j. When more than four eyes of a cane are left in pruning, it is 
called a fruiting cane. 

d. Pruning. 
1. Principles. 

a. The sap flows with greatest force as it nears the extremity of 
the canes. 

b. The more upright the branch is, the more sap flows into it ; the 
more abundant and active the sap, the greater the wood growth 
and larger and later the fruit. 

c. If the sap is checked, the plant bears earlier and produces more 
and richer fruit. 

d. The fruit is borne upon new shoots which spring from last year's 
growth. 

e. The time for pruning is in early spring or late winter, but the 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 129 

vines should not be cut when frozen or when the sap flows 

rapidly, 
f. The vine should be cut off an inch or so beyond the last bud so 

that the last bud will not dry out. 
Methods. 

a. Remove all the diseased parts and suckers. 

b. Shorten the extended shoots, side shoots, and laterals. 

c. Put upright the parts whose rapid growth is desired. 
Pnining- the stem. 

a. It may be done at any time during the winter when the vine is 
dormant. 

b. The extent depends on the growth made. 

c. If the growth is small, all the canes except the strongest should 
be removed and the strongest cut back to two eyes. 

d. If a strong growth has been made and there is 
one straight well ripened cane, all other 
growth should be removed and the strong cane 
cut back to the height intended to form the 
head. 

e. In the fall or winter all the canes but one, are 
cut off and this one is cut back to two or three 
buds. 

f. From this it will be seen that at the beginning 
of the second season's growth the vine is no 
larger than at the beginning of the first sea- •'-^••-j^t^ipjfc^T 
son after planting ^'^^^ n^ shows a 

. g. It must be noted that the roots have become pruned vine at the 

well established for the second season's growth, year. ° 
Winter pruning. 

a. All three-year-old vines should have erect, straight stems with 
two or more canes growing from the trunk, on which the head 
or crown is to be formed and from which the growth of the 
vines is to be renewed from year to year. 

b. Prune and shape or adjust the main body or permanent parts of 
the vine to the desired system. 

e. Then the fruit bearing part of the plant should be so pruned 
that the vine will be renewed from year to year ; never allow the 
vine to overbear but make it bear to its full capacity. 

d. Below the basal buds are one or more dormant buds, which pro- 
duce sterile canes when too few eyes are left in pruning, thus 
forcing them to grow, 

e. If one of them grows the same season it is formed, it makes a 
lateral from which a secondary lateral may also grow. 

f. The first and secondary laterals bear the second and third crops 
of grapes. 

Summer pnining. 

a. When the vine is cut back to two buds, only one should be al- 
lowed to grow. 

b. All other young shoots should be removed. 

c. When the shoots have grown to a foot above where it is intended 
to head, they should be topped slightly above where the head is 
to be formed, causing laterals to grow where they are desired. 




130 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 






Fig. 120. "Vines headed back for different systems of training; A, the spur and fan 
system; B, the four-arm renewal system; C, the two-arm Kniffln, Munson, umbrella 
and overhead system. 

d. Summer pruning is practical on the young growth to regulate 
the quantity of fruit and the shape of the plant. 

e. The only summer pruning that should be done is to rub off the 
superfluous shoots growing from the base of the trunk or from 
the trunk, buds as S and "W.S., Fig. 118, and the secondary 
branches which frequently start from the base of the season's 
growth. 

e. Different systems. 
1. The hig-h-renewal system. Fig. 122. 

a. The high-renewal system of training requires a trellis consisting 
of three or more wires or other suitable supports carried by 
posts or stakes placed at convenient distances apart in the row 
of grapevines, the vines themselves being planted 8 to 10 feet 
apart in the row. 

c e, ^, 

y 




Fig. 121, Diagram of an ordinary trellis, showing the braces (A, B, C) and 
\\ T*»«»nic devices (D) used for tightening- the wires. 

1. The first or lowest wire of size No. 12 upon the trellis is usu- 
ally 18 to 20 inches from the ground. 

2. The next wire of size No. 11 to 12 is about 20 inches higher, 
and the third about 3 feet still higher. 

3. The main trunk of the vine is carried to the height of the 
lowest wire or support. 

e. Principles. 

1. If the high renewal or upright system is followed to train the 
vine by, all of the season's growth is cut off each year, except 
the head of the vine. 

2. This leaves a cane or spur on each side, so that the canes can 
be tied to the wire. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



131 



3. The length of the cane and the number of eyes left on the 
vines will vary with the variety and size of the vine, but 
roughly speaking, 20 to 30 eyes for weak growing ones and 
40 to 50 for strong growing vines. 

4. A cane carrying about eight buds is trained in either direc- 
tion along the loAvest wire. 

5. From each of these buds shoots develop which bear the crop 
of the season ; but as these shoots are seldom able to care for 
themselves they must be tied to the upper supports of the 
trellis. 

6. It will be noted from this 
that the summer tying of 
plants trained on this sys- 
tem is very much greater 
than with plants trained on 
the .Ki4ffen system, 

7. From the T head which, as 
has been stated, is carried' 
to the height of the lowest 
wire, canes are carried in 
both directions along the 
lowest and are firmly tied 
to it. 

8. Near the base of each of 
these canes, but upon the 
older wood of the T head, 
short spurs carrying two or 
three buds are maintained, 
A and B, Fig. 123, from 
which shoots develop which 
in turn are usually em- 
ployed to furnish the fruit- 
ing canes of the succeeding 
year; that is, the spurs are 
the m.eans of renewing the 
fruiting wood of ' the vine 
grown on the high-renewal 
system. 

d. Pruning. Fig. 122. 

1. The end of the second year. 

(A) . 

a. At the close of the second 
season after planting, you 
should have a vine like 
the illustration ; with two 
good canes extending in 
the opposite directions, 
and tied to the wire. 

b. The pruning this year 
should be to cut off the 
ends of the canes back to 

firm, strong wood, leav- Fig-. 122, a pruned and an unpruned 

vine at different ages. 




132 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

ing from five to eight buds. 

c. Observe the renewal stubs, one on each side of the crotch 
on B. 

d. If the second season's growth is too weak to support the 
arms which are now to be formed upon it, cut it back at 
the end of the second season, as at the end of the first 
season. 

2. The end of the third year. (B) 

a. The third year's shoots will grow upright from these five 
to eight buds and should be tied to the upper wire, or they 
may be allowed to droop from the first wire to the ground. 

b. Some of the upright shoots will bear a crop the third year, 
but unless the vines are strong, the flower clusters should 
be removed. 

c. The vine is pruned at the end of the third year like (B). 

3. The end of the fourth year (C and D). 

a. At the end of the fourth season the vines look like (D) if 
it is a strong grower. 

b. The vine at the end of the fourth year is pruned like (C). 
2. KniflFen four-cane system. 

a. Trellis. 

1, It consists of two wires ; first 30, and second, 56 inches above 
the ground. 

b. Principles. 

1. See Fig. 118. 

2. Two canes and two spurs of last year's growth are left at the 
lower wire ; two canes and two spurs at the top vine. 

3. It will be noted that the long trunk employed in the Kniffen 
system carries the fruiting branches far above the ground. 

4. This permits the annual growth to fall from the supporting 
wires in a natural way without the necessity of tying. 

5. Slight advantage which the Kniffen system has over high- 
rencAval system is that the fruits are farther from the ground 
and less liable to injury from mildew and rot. 

6. They are also somewhat easier to spray, although there is 
comparatively little difference in this regard between the 
Kniffen and the high-renewal system. 

7. The Kniffen system consists in the carrying of either one or 
two main trunks to the height of 3 to 5 feet above the 
ground; sometimes they are carried to the height of 6 feet or 
more. 

8. If two trunks are employed, one is carried 6 feet or more 
above the ground and the other about 18 to 20 inches lower. 

9. It is not desirable to attempt to make two stories on a single 
trunk as the laws of growth induce development at the ex- 
tremity of the cane and therefore the set of branches which 
are the lowest upon a common trunk makes little or no de- 
velopment, growth being confined almost entirely to the up- 
permost set of branches. 

10. When two trunks are employed, the case is different and each 
set of branches becomes, as it were, terminal branches and a 
much more satisfactory growth results. 



5IANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



133 



c. Pruning. 

^ 1. The method of renewal employed in the Kniffen system is 
practically the same as that in the high-renewal system ; that 
is, the canes which are to bear the fruit during the next sea- 
son are selected from wood which developed the previous 
year. 

2. These canes are cut back to six or eight buds and are tied to 
the central wire of the overhead trellis. 

3. At the close of the season the bearing cane is removed and a 
new shoot, which developed from near the head of the trunk, 
is used to replace it during the succeeding year. 

4. The same treatment is employed for the other side of the 
head ; that is, the T head at the top of the trunk on the Knif- 
fen trained vine serves the same purpose as the T head at the 
top of the trunk of the high-renewal vine. 

5. The vine trained according to the four cane Kniffen system at 
the end of the fourth year is shown in figure 128. 

Kniffen two cane system, or Umbrella system, 
a. Principles. 

1. The trunk of the vine extending directly to the top wire 
where the growth is annually cut back to two canes and two 
spurs, one on each side, which are fastened to the top wire. 

2. The absence of the two lower canes insures a good upright 
trunk and the renewal of the fruit bearing wood to one head 
makes the vine more easily pruned, leaves less old wood, and 
results in a cleaner and better ventilated vines. 




Fig. 123, Showing the method of training by the Umbrella 
system. At the end of the fourth year (A) pruned vine (B) 
unpruned vine. 

b. Pruning. Fig. 123. 

1. See pruning of the four cane system. 
4. Short pruning system. 

a. This system is also called the spur or stool 
system, and is extensively used in Califor- 
nia, especially with the stockier growing 
varieties. 

b. The body of the vine is first allowed to grow 
to the desired height and shoots are permit- 
ted to grow only from the two uppermost 
buds. 

c. Two canes thus resulting are cut back in the 
winter to spurs of two eyes each. 

d. Next year, these spurs are allowed to pro- 




Fig. 124, A pruned 
vine in its fifth 
year, showing the 
method of training 
by the spur, stool 
or short system. 



134 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



h 



duce growth and the canes thus resulting, are again cut back to 
spurs which are allowed to remain if the vine is strong enough. 
Fig. 120A. 

At the end of the fourth or fifth year the vine should consist of 
a trunk from which springs four or five arms on each of which 
a cane has been cut back to a spur as illustrated by Fig. 124. 
When the vine is again pruned, all or nearly all of the outer 
canes that have grown then from the spurs are entirely removed. 
The spurs of the last season are cut off just outside of the inner 
canes, which are cut back to spurs, after this, the pruning each 
winter is to promote a regular system of spur renewal. 
The older the vines, the stronger they get and hence more spurs 
may be left on to increase the fruiting capacity of the plant. 

i. In time the arms upon which the spurs are borne will have to 
be renewed. , j 

j. Essay to keep the head of the vine vase-shaped. 

k. Vines like the Niagara, Delaware and the Brighton, which have 
poor growth from the first may be improved by increasing the 
length of the spurs and number of eyes, leaving four or five eyes, 
f . Comparison of the different systems. 

The four cane Kniffen system. 

a. See Figure 118. 

b. Its advantages over the single stemmed 
Kniffen is that the laws of growth encour- 
age the greater development of the upper 
set of branches at the expense of the 
lower. 

c. The advantage of these two systems is 
that the canes fall naturally upon the 
wires and are easily tied. 

The two-cane Kniffen system. 

a. See Figure 123. 

b. It is an improvement over the four caned 
Kniffen in that the absence of the two 
lower canes insures a good upright trunk. 

c. The renewal of the fr-uit-b earing wood to 
one head, makes the vine more easily, 
pruned, and leaves less wood and result- 
ing in a cleaner and better ventilated 
vine. 

The High-renewal system. 

a. See Figure 122. 

b. The only difference between this and the 
above two is that the new growth of the 
latter must be tied up to the higher wire, 
rather than be allowed to fall to the 
ground. • • 

e. This necessitates a great deal more work in the summer and also 

more wire. 
The Horizontal-arm spur system. 

a. See Fig. 126. 

b. This is the same as the above ones except that the arms are left 




Fig-. 125, A pruned 
vine in its fifth year, 
showing the method of 
training by the cane 
system. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



135 



C. 



e. 



on and the new growths are made from the canes which are 

left upon the arms and are renewed thereon every year. 

This method gives more surface upon which the new growth, is 

made. 

New spurs are grown from the horizontal arms to replace the 

old one and for the new shoots to start out from. 

Heavy wood-growing varieties may be successfully pruned this 

way. 




Fig. 126, A vine in its fourth year according to the horizontal 
arm spur renewal system. 

5. Fan System. 

a. See Figure 127. 




me^^.-^^^-i^S*C:Sf:X'-'^j2^^ 



Fig 127 A vine at different ages, showing the method of training by the fan system, 

'a, an unpruned vine in its third year; B, a pruned vine m its fourth 

year; C, an unpruned vine in its fourth year. 

b. In this method most of the old wood is disposed of each year. 

c. The vines can be laid down and covered each year if the climate 
is severe; and the young growing shoots can be laid across the 
wires and the tendrils catch onto the wire doing away with the 
necessity of tying. 

d. The renewals are seen in B, and the explanation at the base of 
the illustration is sufficient to enable the operation to be under- 
stood. . 

6. Short system. 

a. See Figures 124 and 120A. 

b. The advantages of this system are that it is the simplest, easiest 
and cheapest method in use. 



1.36 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 




Fig. 128, A vine pruned ac- 
cording- to the four-cane Knif- 
fen system; C, canes, called 
shoots when green and canes 
when mature; ap., spurs, canes 
cut back to one to four eyes; 
T, trunk, the stem or main 
body of the vine; a, b, c, d, 
arms succeeding those shown 
at their 2 -year- old stage in fig- 
ure 119 at 1, 2, 3, 4. 



Pruning" old vines 

1. The vines in figure 123 
show how they were 
pruned for the first four 
years according- to the 
two-cane system which 
will also represent how 
the top is formed in 
the other system. 

2. The vines in figure 120 
show how the vines of 
the different systems are pruned at the 
end of the third year. 

3. Let the vine in figure 118 represent the 
growth at the end of the fifth year. 
a. The two-year-old arms (1, 2, 3 and 

4) which grew during the preAdous 
summer, were the only ones allowed 
to remain of all the canes when the 
vine was pruned in the winter. 
b. When the canes (1, 2, 3, 4) were first 
left, they were tied to the wire, 
c. The canes grew from the above arms and bore fruit the next 
summer. 

4. Study the parts of the figure 128. 

5. The vine in figure 118 is pruned the following winter and it looks 
like the vine in figure 128. 

a. The canes (a, b, c, d) were only left and tied to the wire as the 
arms (1, 2, 3, 4) of figure 118. 

b. The canes (a, b, c, d) are only one year old but become arms 
when canes grew upon them. 

c. The C canes in figure 128 in the spring should never be more 
than one year old. 

d. This necessitates a constant renewal of wood for the bearing 
surface. 

6. The renewal of spurs. 

a. This is affected by keeping a new growth Sp in Fig. 128 grow- 
ing each year, out of which shoots grow to become canes upon 
which the nest year's crop is to grow. 

b. These canes grow from Sp shoots while the present crop is being 
borne upon C. canes in Fig. 128. 

c. The spur, Sp. in Fig. 128 should be cut to from one to four buds 
from which the new canes start. 

d. Remember the basal buds do not grow strong shoots and for 
that reason should not be left on. 

7. The entire vine, Fig. 118 is pruned in ten cuts. 

h. Renewal. 
1. It must be remembered that we must have some method of renew- 
ing the tops or bearing wood of the vine. 



MAJ^^UAL OF HORTICULTURE 137 

2. In order to do this intelligently, we must remember that the fruit 
is borne in a few clusters near the base of the growing shoot of 
the present season and that these spring from wood of last year's 
growth. 

3. Each bud on the old cane produces a new shoot which may bear 
fruit as well as leaves and then the shoots ripen into canes. 

4. These canes have buds every foot or less from which a new fruit 
bearing shoot may start in the next spring. 

5. The cane cannot bear a shoot for every bud, therefore it is neces- 
sary to cut off the cane leaving only as many buds as experience 
teaches that the variety can stand. 

6. This is from five to ten buds, never more than ten. 

7. Each shoot from these should bear from two to four clusters. 

8. From two to five canes not bearing over five to ten buds, each 
should be left for each spring growth. 

9. It will be seen from this that the constantly ageing of the main 
branches, B. Fig 118 extending into A, Fig. 118, will have a tend- 
ency to keep carrying the fruit bearing wood away from the main 
body or trunk of the vine. 

10. It is for this reason that the little growths are started as in B 
and C, Fig. 122 and A and B in Fig. 123. 

11. As the wider extending two branches age and carry the fruit 
bearing wood farther and farther away from the trunk, these two 
renewal stubs may be bent down to the wire and fastened to the 
wire and then the older arms cut off in due time. 

i. References. 

1. See References under Thinning. 

2. U. S. Dept. Bulletin No. 471. 

STRAWBERRIES. 

1. Propagation. 

a. By seeds to secure new forms. 

b. By Stolons. 

2. Time to plant. 

a. Spring planting is preferable because the soil is moist, warm 
and in better condition for the plants. 

b. Fall planting is practiced but the plant has not time to produce 
a large crown system before winter. 

3. Selection of plants. 

a. Plants that have developed strong crowns and healthy root sys- 
tem are capable of producing large crops. 

b. Plants that are formed by stolons should be used. 

c. Plants from the old bed should be avoided as continued fruiting 
saps the vitality and prevents the development of strong run- 
ners. 

d. Pollination. 

1. Bi-sexual or perfect plants have power of producing both 

stamens and pistils. 

a. Bi-sexual varieties. 

Aroma Oregon Iron Clad "^ 

Brandywine Parker Earle 

Clark's Seedling Parson's Beauty 

Gandy Rough Rider 



138 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

Marshall Senator Dunlap 

Midnight Wm. Belt 

Miller 

2. Pistillate or imperfect plants produce pistils only, 
a. Pistillate varieties should not be planted alone. 

Buback President 

Haverland Sample 

Mark Hanna 

3. Fruiting seasons. 

a. Early to medium varieties. 

Aroma Parker Earle 

Brandywine Parson's Beauty 

Clark's Seedling Rough Rider 

Midnight Senator Dunlap 

Miller Wm. Belt 

b. Late varieties. 

Buback Marshall 

Gandy Oregon Iron Glad . 

Haverland President 

Mark Hanna Sample 

4. Distance to plant. 

a. Hill system. 

1. Plants are set singly either 3 by 3 feet apart or with rows 4 
feet apart and the plants 2 feet apart in the rows depending 
on soil. 

2. The hill system affords more intensive cultivation. 

b. Matted system. 

1. Plants are set in single rows 4 feet apart with the plants 12 
inches apart in the row, or the rows from 3 to 3^ feet apart 
and plants from 20 to 30 inches apart in the row. 

2. After the second crop has been harvested the runners can 
take possession of the cultivated middle ; and when the plants 
are thoroughly established, the old rows can be broken up, 
thus cheaply renewing the patch. 

c. Sing-le-Hedge Row. 

1. The plants are set in rows from 2 to 3 feet apart and the 
plants from 20 to 30 inches apart in the row. 

2. The mother plant is allowed to set two runners which are 
turned into the row. 

3. All other runners are clipped off. 

d. Double-Hedge Row. 

1. The plants are set in rows about 3 feet apart, and the plants 
about 30 inches apart. 

2. The mother plant is allowed to set four runners, one from 
each side of the plant. 

3. Superfluous runners are clipped off. 

4. This eliminates crowding and permits plenty of sunlight and 
air. ' . 

5. Before planting. 

a. Plants should be heeled-in by digging a trench deep enough to 
cover the roots and laying in the plants close together in a single 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 139 

r~row with roots spread out, and the soil should be pressed firmly 
around the roots leaving the crowns and leaves exposed. 

b. "When transplanting, the roots should not be exposed to wind as 
drying out of the roots is very detrimental to the life of the 
plant. 

c. Dip the roots in water and place the plants in small bundles then 
wrap with a damp cloth. 

d. Prune off all diseased and dead leaves and all large ones except 
one or two of the thriftiest. 

e. Prune off about one-third of the roots. 

6. Setting- out the plants. 

a. A shovel-toothed cultivator can be used for making the rows. 

b. The hole may be opened with spade or trowel and the plant 
placed in at the proper depth. 

e. The roots should be spread apart like a fan. 

d. The crown should be just at the surface of the soil. 

e. The soil should be pressed firmly against the roots of the plants. 

7. Pruning. 

a. Runners exhaust and check the plants more than weeds. 

b. If strong plants and large excellent fruit, are desired, the run- 
ners should be kept off by pruning once a week through the 
summer. 

e. Begin to prune as soon as the plants begin to form runners. 

d. Sometimes a strawberry pruner is used, which is made out of a 
heavy sheet-iron about 30 inches long and 6 inches wide, the 
ends riveted to form a cylinder about 9 inches in diameter ; the 
edge should be kept very sharp. 

8. Irrigation. 

a. The water is best applied in small rills close to the row. 

b. Use a small amount of water over a long period on soils that 
have a tendency to puddle instead of a large amount for less 

, time. 

• e. Coarse open soils should receive copious waterings of shorter 

duration than fine soils. 
d. Irrigate for plants when the ground begins to get dry, and two 

or three times a week when the berries begin to ripen in order to 

make big berries. 

9. Cultivations. 

a. Intensive cultivation is essential to mature a large crop of 
berries. 

b. General rules. 

1. Strawberry plants are shallow rooted and cultivation should 
be shallow so as not to disturb the fibrous roots. 

2. Dust mulch should be obtained to prevent evaporation. 

3. Keep out the grass and weeds as they rob the strawberry 
plants of nourishment. 

c. Thorough clean cultivation is the secret of success in strawberry 
culture. 

10. Mulching". 

a. The material used is whole or cut straw, straw manure or marsh 
hay. , J 



140 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

b. It is to protect the plants from cold, prevents freezing and thaw- 
ing and thus lifting of the plants. 

e. It retards the growth in cold regions by shading the crowns and 
maintaining a low soil temperature longer than in soil not 
mulched. 

d. It acts as a conserve of moisture, discourages weed growth of 
smothering the young seedlings. 

e. It protects the fruit from contact with the soil. 
11. References. 

a. U. S. Dept. Bulletin No. 198. 

b. Idaho Bulletin No. 70. 

e. Delaware Bulletin No. 28. 

2. Blackberries and Raspberries. 

1. Object of pruning. 

a. Removing superfluous shoots from the base of the plant so that 
no more than five or six canes remain. 

b. Heading back the shoots when they reach the required height, 
thus causing them to throw out laterals and be more stocky. 

c. Heading back these laterals next spring before the growth starts. 

d. Cutting out the canes after they have borne rather than waiting 
to do this the next spring. 

2. The first step. 

a. The usual plan is to allow the young shoots which annually 
spring up from the root of the plant to grow to the height of 2 
feet or a little more. 

b. When the shoots have attained this height the first step in the 
pruning begins by breaking off 3 or 4 inches of the topmost por- 
tion of the shoot, leaving it 20 or 22 inches in height. 

c. The rapidly growing succulent shoots snap off easily between 
the thumb and finger, and as a rule, no shears or other pruning 
device will be found necessary to accomplish this heading-in. 

d. As a result of the check sustained by breaking off the terminal 
bud, the stalk thickens, the leaves grow larger, the axillary buds 
near the end of the stalk increase in size, and soon lateral 
shoots develop from them. 

e. As a rule, five or six of the topmost buds push out and, instead 
of having one sturdy stalk several feet in length which would 
carry one-half dozen fruit clusters near its tip the succeeding 
season, pruning has restricted its height to 20 or 22 inches and 
has induced the formation of five or six lateral shoots, each of 
which may grow to be as much as 18 inches or more in length 
before the close of the season and, instead of a single cane for 
fruit production, there are five or six, each of which will carry 
as many fruit clusters as would have been produced by the orig- 
inal shoot, had it been left to itself. 

3. Second step. 

a. The second step in pruning consists in cutting out all the wood 
which is older than the present season's growth. 

b. This pruning should be done immediately after the season's crop 
has been harvested. 

c. If done at this period it is easy to distinguish the fruiting wood 
from that which has grown during the season, and by taking 




MANUAL OF HORTICULTUHE 141 

-but all the useless wood at this time the whole energy of the root 
is reserved for the new growth which is to supply the crop next 
season. 

d. A cutting edge is provided on the 
hook which reduces it to a hawk- 
bill knife, and as well upon the 
chisel-shaped portion upon the back. 

e. In one case the implement serves 
the purpose of a brush hook on a 
small scale, and in the other, when 
the chisel blade is used, it serves as 
a spud. 

4 : Third step. 

a. A third step in the pruning is short- 
ening the lateral branches which 
have developed from the headed-in 

shoot. Fig. 129, Shows raspberry 

b. This work is usually done in the p^^p^^^^ p^^"^*^- 
spring before or a^ l^looming time, and is for the purpose of 
regulating the crop as well as reducing the wood so as to enable 
the cane more -^asiiy to support the fruit and to make the work 
of harvesting more easy. 

5. New growth from roots. 

a. From what has been stated it will have been inferred that the 
raspberry bears its fruit most abundantly upon wood one year 
of age, and that older wood is of little or no use and should 
be cut out for the good of the plant. 

b. There are exceptions to the rule, for raspberries frequently 
bear a few fruits upon the new shoots which annually come up 
from the root of the plant when those shoots are allowed to 
grow unchecked ; but as this forms a late or second crop and as 
it does not occur as a fixed habit of the plant but rather as a 
result of peculiar weather conditions, it is never taken into ac- 
count in commercial raspberry culture. 

6. Results of pruning-. 

a. The shortening of the shoots to 2 feet or less in height together 
with the thickening which follows, renders them able to sup- 
port a crop of fruit without the aid of a trellis. 

7. Method of stalking. 

a. If the upright growing varieties are planted in hills they may 
be stalked to a single stake from four to six feet high, and the 
canes loosely but firmly fastened to the stake. 

b. Another method is to have two stakes about eighteen inches 
apart at each hill with the idea of training the fruiting canes 
on one post and the growing canes on the other. 

c. Where the plants are planted in a continuous row they may be 
supported by a wire trellis of two wires running from the posts. 

d. One of 'the wires should run along the top of the posts and the 
other from eighteen to twenty-four inches from the top. 

e. Another method is to put across arms about eighteen inches 
long, on a single line of posts about three feet from the ground 
running a wire at each end of the cross pieces. 



142 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

f. Another set of cross pieces at the top of the posts with heavy 

(No. 10) wire staples should be fastened. 

g. This forms a lateral support. 

h. This latter (the four-wire support) makes also, an excellent 

support for the viney varieties. 
i. By this system the growing canes can and should be kept from 

the fruiting ones, thus facilitating picking, harvesting and 

pruning. 

8. Method of growth. 

a. The canes of these plants are biennial 

b. The canes grow the first season, fruit the second, after which 
they die. 

c. New ones grow up to take their place at the same time. 

d. When the new canes of the black-cap and Antwerps have 
reached the height of three to four feet, they should be pinched 
back which will cause them to become stout and thick, and 
strong laterals to develop. 

. e. After the laterals are a foot or so long, they, in turn should be 
pinched back. 

f. When suckers are numerous they should be cut away, leaving 
only enough to replenish the plant for next year. 

g. Usually five or six years is the age of one of these plants. 

9. References. 

a. Washington Bulletin No. 18. 

3. Currants-Gooseberries. 

1. Currants. 

a. In general, a currant bush should be composed of from five to 
eight stalks, stopped about 18 to 20 inches in height. 

b. If the plants are vigorous, shoots stopped at this height will 
produce several lateral branches, thus forming a compact, 
broad-headed bush with a maximum expanse of bearing wood. 

c. To grow currants in tree form all the grower has to do is to 
remove all the buds from the part of the layer or cutting that 
is put in the ground. 

d. This prevents any growth shooting up from below the surface 
of the soil, hence no suckers are formed. 

2. Gooseberries. 

a. The gooseberry should be treated like currants, but will be 
found to require less heading-back, because its normal habit is 
to produce numerous side shoots rather than strong, upright 
ones. 

3. The canes of the currant and gooseberry bear several times. 

a. Only the first two or three crops are the best; after this the 
fruit deteriorates in size. 

b. For this reason, it is necessary that a succession of strong, new 
canes be coming on all the time. 

c. Then, as the older canes age, they should be cut out. 

d. A good bush may be allowed from four to eight canes, the 
fewer of course, the larger the fruits. 

4. References. 

a. Washington Bulletins Nos. 25, 26. 



MANUAL OF HORTIGULTURE 143 

ORNAMENTALS. 
1. Objects in pruning ornamental trees and shrubs. 

a. To produce some desired form. 

b. To develop strong and uniform foliage. 

c. To produce flower buds. . 

2 The important things to remember in pruning flowering sj^'^^s. 

a. Those flowering in spring usually flower from winter Duds. 

b. Those flowering in summer or autumn from buds formed that 
season. 

c. It will be seen that winter pruning of the former cuts away 

flower buds. „ ^^ ,, 

d Heading-in, just as soon as the flowers fall encourages the 

growth of new shoots, with the formation of new buds which 

will bloom the following year, 
e These shoots will form without the aid of the pruner, but when 

the bush begins to get crowded or old, it is advisable to prune 

or head in and then thin out. 
3. Summer blooming trees or shrubs bear flowers on shoots grown 

the same season. 
4 The flowers are not formed until growth begins. 

5. These plants should be made to bear a profusion of strong spring 
and early growths. . 

6. To facilitate this it is necessary to prune m the tail, winter or 
early spring. 

7. The best example of this is the roses. ; 

8. Climbing and pillar roses need only the weak branches and tips 

shortened. ^r.- j j. x 

9. Other hardy varieties need heading back from one-third to two- 
thirds of their length, early in the spring. ^ 

10. All old wood should be entirely cut out leaving only the last 
year's shoots. .,, , 

11. A cutting back after ^e June blooming will also encourage new 
■ growth with a second crop of flowers. 

12. If the cutting back is too severe in the June pruning, there will be 
only vigorous, leafy shoots without flowers. 

13. B6 not cut back' over vone-third. ... 

14. In trimming roses, prune strong growing varieties moderately; 
weak growing ones severely. 

15. The spring blooming flowers should be pruned just after they 

flower. 

Amelanchier ' Mock Orange 

Amydalus Most Woody Spireas 

Asiatic Hydrangea Rhodedendron 

Azalea Snowball 

Barbery Syrmgas 

Cerasus Tamarix Africana " " 

Deutzia Tamarix Gallica 

Flowering Crabs Viburnums, French and Asiatic 

Flowering- Currants V- Lantan and V. Opiilas 

Forsythia ^ Aricties, V. Plicatum 

Lenerica ■ Weigela 

Lilac Wistaria 

Magnolias 



144 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

16. The summer and autumn blooming plants should be pruned in 
winter or early spring. 

American Hydrangeas Genista 

Ceanethus Hydrangea Paniculata 

Clematis Kersia 

Cornus Most roses 

Fly Honeysuckle True or Twining Hono}- suckle 

HEDGES. 

1. Form. 

a. One of the best forms for a hedge which is to serve either as a 
fence, windbreak, or as an ornament is the pyramid. 

2. Shaping" the hedge. 

a. When the plants are first set out in line they should be pruned 
or shortened to within 2 or 3 inches of the ground and allowed 
to grow undisturbed during the first season. 

b. At the end of the yearly growth, the plants should again be 
pruned down to within 6 or 8 inches of the first pruning, and 
the side or horizontal growths being pruned within an inch of 
the main stem. 

c. During the growth of the second season the hedge may be par- 
tially shaped by an occasional pinching out of the points of 
stronger upright shoots, but preserving every shoot and leaf on 
the weaker side growth. 

3. Varieties of hedges. 

a. Honey Locust which makes the best quick-growing protective 
hedges ; big strong spines. 

b. Barberrj^ which is low, spreading and showy. 

c. Japan Quince, which has the finest flower of all hedge plants. 

d. Privet which is the fastest growing hedge. 

4. Pruning evergreens. 

a. Evergreens, such as the arbor vitae, require less labor in pre- 
paration or training and maintenance than deciduous plants, as 
most of them naturally assume a pyramidal form, and by a 
practice, based upon the principles already noted, good hedges 
can easily be produced. 

b. The main points are to keep the top of the hedge shaped to a 
point and allow the sides to expand sufficiently so that all parts 
of the hedge surface may be exposed to light. 

c. Very rarely will it be necessary to trim the growing hedge 
more than once a year and the best time for the work is just 
before the commencement of the growth in spring. 

d. When the hedge has attained a height of 5 feet, it should be 
about 3 feet wide at its base or at the surface of the ground and 
all pruning should be directed with a view to securing this form. 

ORNAMENTAL TREES. 

1. Planting of seeds. 

a. See Stratification. 

2. Time to plant. 

a. It depends upon the conditions of the soil, and the weather that 
folloM'^s transplanting. 

b. Many trees may be planted at any time during their dormant 
or leafless period. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



145 



e. Early spring is generally the best time to transplant. 

3. Before planting, 
a. See Apple. 

4. Setting the tree, 
a. See Apple. 

5. Pruning the stem. 

a. The tree should remain under the nursery culture till it has 
reached a height from 8 to 10 feet. 

b. It should be headed-back from 7 to 8 feet. 

e. The young limb grows in the direction to which it is pointed in 
an angle to the parent branch according to its variety ; it devi- 
ates from this to the 
light in more or less 
short curves. Know- 
ing these three facts, 
besides the fact that 
the strongest limbs 
grow from the top 
buds, we should nev- 
er prune so the bud 
will point inward to- 
ward the center. 

e. Practically the train- 
ing process should ^*^" ^^'^ shows how to prune the stems and tops. 

commence in the nursery, where the growth of a leading shoot 
should be maintained and all side branches kept back by pinch- 
ing their points. 

f. These branches should not be removed entirely, as they tend to 
strengthen the main stem, and can be removed later. 

6. Cutting branches. 

a. Do not leave stubs or cut too close to trunks of trees. 

b. The cut should be as small as possible. 

c. Strong branches do not always develop from the highest cut. 






Fig. 131 shows the proper way to make cuts. 

d. No. 1 shows the cuts should be made smooth and not too close 
to bud. 

e. No. 2 shows where the strong bud developed and the strong 
terminal bud of the ash and walnut. 

f. No. 3 shows the right way to prune a rapidly grown branch. 
Main branches. 

a. The young tree ought to have a crown of from 3 to 5 branches, 
and the lowest of which should be from 6 to 8 feet above the 
ground. 



146 MANUAL OF HORTIGULTXIRE 

b. Keep in mind what the ideal tree looks like and the manner in 
which it is to be pruned. 

c. Should the trees be planted in clusters or as specimen trees, in 
the park or on the lawn, of course it should not be headed 
nearly so high. 

d. Remember the only beauty to be found in barren trunks of trees 
is when the lower limbs must be sacrificed for utility. 

e. Since branches develop strongest from buds near the top, those 
which develop from buds lower down should be removed at the 
next pruning. 

f. When five or six branches have developed to form a crown they 
should be headed-back about two-thirds of their length which is 
usually about two to two and one-half feet. 

g. Naturally the length to cut them back will be influenced by the 
number of branches forming the crown. 

h. The purpose of heading-back is to induce the tree to branch to 

such an extent as to form a wide crown. 
i. Should too many limbs develop some may have to be taken out 

entirely. 
j. Thus it will be seen that a young crown composed of three limbs 

would have to be headed-in shorter than a crown with five or 

six limbs. 

8. Forming- the top. 

a. Pruning- at end of first year's growth. 

1. The exact length to head-back can not be specifically deter- 
mined as it depends upon the variety and vigor of the tree. 

2. A close observation by the pruner coupled with good jtidg- 
ment will result in the right heading-back. 

3. A fairly safe rule to follow, is to cut off two-thirds of last 
year's growth for the first year. 

4. After pruning, the tree will throw out numerous limbs, ' suf- 
ficient to keep the crown full but not crowd it too much. 

5. Should a limb rub Or cross, it should be cut out. 

6. Should the crown be too open, then it should be headed-in. 

7'. Should the crown be too compact, then it should be headed- 
out. 
8. The first pruning is to direct the growth of the young tree. 

b. Pruning at the end of second year's growth. 

1. Cut off about one-third of the last year 's growth. 

2. This pruning is to correct its development. 

3. Not later than the second year after planting, a careful in- 
spection should be made after the leaves fall, and if more 
than one shoot seems developing to leaders, select the fittest 
and remove the tops from the other; also cut the points of 
any side branches that appear to require checking, so as to 
maintain symmetry- in the tree. 

• 4. The idea should be to aid the tree in its natural form, never 
losing the esthetic effect a naturally developed plant must 
necessarily have upon the viewer. 

c. Pruning subsequent years. 
1. See second year. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUEE 



147 



2. The ordinary shade tree does not need pruning after the 
fourth year. 

3. Should crowns be too full, branches should be taken out, but 
not in such a manner as to leave holes or unsightly places. 

4. This may be done by cutting the branch back to a lower 
branch but not to the trunk. 

. 5. Young trees that have strong terminal buds, as the chestnuts, 
ash, walnut, horse-chestnut, which represent the vitality of 
the limbs should not be treated by having the end of the 
limbs cut off as it will shorten their period of growth for 
four to five weeks and perhaps endanger the life of the tree 
itself. 

6. If this type of trees develops a crown on one side, cut off 
the longer limbs entirely but do not head them back. 

7. The. ideal street tree is one having a straight, well defined 
central stem throughout its entire length, with side branches 
regularly disposed around it and sub-ordinate to it. 

8. Trees grown in this shape will withstand fiercer storms and 
sudden bursts of wind without injury. 

9. Not. many deciduous trees naturally assume this form, but by 
timely pruning when young trees they can be greatly helped 
to approach it, . ■ _ 

10. This training process should commence while . the tree is 
young and its growth easily controlled. 

9, Symmetrical tree. 

. a. The crown must extend horizontally from trunk in all directions, 
b. This should mean that the cross-section would be circular with 
the trunk for the center. 
If the trunk is the center of such a tree we have the ideal tree 










Fig. 132 indicates the habits in which different types of trees grow. 

for the landscape, in fact any tree, either fruit or shade, for an 
ideal must be this way. 

This applies to all trees regardless of their shape, or natural 
habit of growth, pyramidal, conical, cylindrical, depressed-coni- 
cal, globe-shaped, erect, spreading, drooping or pendulous. 



148 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

e. Fig. 132 illustrates seven types of trees with their respective 
natural shape. 

f. Keep these shapes in mind as it is necessary to direct their 
growth. 

g. Lower part of the above figure shows how to treat rank and out 
of proportion branches to keep the tree symmetrical. 

h. Trees like type I (Lombardy) and 2 (Carolina poplars) forming 
an upright, undivided crown, may be started with branches five 
to six feet from the ground. 

1. Don't clip poplars overhead. 

2. You can not change the habit of growth without distorting 
the crown and making it unsightly. 

3. Should telephone and telegraph wires necessitate it, then 
treat as 2 in lower cut. 

4. By reducing the center branches most of the side branches 
will be left longer and finally overtop the wire without 
touching them. 

i. Type 4, Elm, as Black Honey Locusts may also be treated this 

way. 
j. Trees like type 4, as an elm, which takes the form in its crown 

of an inverted pyramid, and those taking form of type 4i/2, the 

pyramid, should be pruned as indicated by a and b. 
k. Trees like type 5, as birch and larch, starts in its early life to 

grow two main branches. 

1. If so, cut one of them back, giving the other a chance to 
forge ahead and become a leader, thus doing away with the 
danger of splitting. 

2. The same treatment should be applied to a Lombardy poplar. 

3. Avoid forks as they are weak places. 

1. Trees like type 6, as various maples. Sycamore maple, English 
maple, soft maple, box elder, etc., with nearly globular crowns, 
should be pruned according to a and b. 
m. Trees like type 7, as the linden, basswood, and the Catalpa 

grow according to c. 
n. When it is not then the pruning must be severe enough to cor- 
rect entirely. 
10. Lower branches. 

a. The removal of all lower branches is rendered necessary in order 
that they may not interfere with the proper use of the side- 
walks and streets, but such removal has a tendency to weaken 
the main body of the tree and diminish its power of resistance 
against the sweeping blasts to which street trees are oftentimes 
subjected. 

b. This trimming up from below will require attention for a num- 
ber of years, because as the lower branches extend they will 
droop at the ends and become an interference. 

c. The points of these drooping branches may be removed for a 
time but this will afford only temporary relief, and ultimately 
the whole branch will have to be removed by cutting it off 
close to the main stem ; but this should not be done until it be- 
comes absolutely "necessary. 



MAi^UAL OF HORTICULTURE 149 

11. Large trees. 

a. The best method of pruning large trees in cities is sometimes a 
different question to decide. 

b. As a rule, the worst treatment they can receive is to cut off 
their tops "heading down" as it is termed. 

c. When this involves the removal of heavy branches, so as to 
leave a mere skeleton of stumps, it not only destroys the beauty 
of the tree but induces decay, especially with trees that do not 
speedily send out growth immediately below the cut. 

d. Heading-down is objectionable in so far as it causes a low, 
dense growth not desirable even as shade, and increases the lia- 
bility to destruction from windstorms. 

12. General remarks. 

a. In general, the pruning of shade trees is to be discouraged. 

b. It is only necessary, at the most, to prune them for a few years 
in order to get the crowu properly balanced. 

c. Opening the top up as some do, is decidedly foolish. 

d. Topping old trees, thus leaving large, unsightly stubs for num- 
erous watersprouts to grow from and form a thicket, is one of 
the rankest crimes committed against a tree. 

e. In general, after the first three years, a shade tree needs only 
to be pruned but a little merely as a correction to its shape. 

Exercise 42. 

1. Object: To estimate the height of a tree, ''shadow method." 

2. Method: 

a. Set a short pole in the earth near the tree so that the shadow 
of the pole will fall on ground the slope of which is as near- . 
ly as possible the same as that on which the shadow of the 
tree falls. 

b. Measure the height of the pole from the surface of the earth. 

c. The height of the tree may then be computed as follows : 

d. Multiply the length of the tree's shadow by the height of the 
pole, and divide the product by the length of the pole's 
shadow. 

e. The proportion may be expressed thus : 

f. The height of the pole is to the length of its shadow as the 
height of the tree is to the length of the shadow. 

Exercise 43. 

1. Object: To show where the increase in height takes place in 
trees. 

2. Method: 

a. In the early spring find a vigorous tree, 2 feet or more in 
height with smooth bark, such as a young hickory, box elder, 
or Cottonwood. 

b. Cut a notch in the bark at a given height above the ground 
and another notch about a foot above the first. 

c. Record the exact height of the first notch and the distance 
between it and the second. 

d. Now measure the height of the sapling to the topmost termi- 
nal bud. 



150 .MANUAL OF HORTICULTUEE 

e. Return to the sapling in the autumn and repeat the measure- 
ments. 

f. How much has the tree increased in height? 

g. Has either notch been lifted from the ground? 
h. Have the notches grown .farther apart? 

i. Where has the new growth taken place ? 

j. Do you think that the tree in growing pushes its whole trunk 
upward, stretches that part already built or merely adds to 
its height at the top? 
k. After a branch has developed from the trunk, would it be 
lifted higher from the ground by the growth of the tree? 
Exercise 44. 

1. Object: To show how a tree increases in diameter. 

2. Method: 

a. Early in the spring select a. young, vigorously growing tree, 
3 to 4 inches in diameter, with a thin bark which peels easily, 
for example, a willow or box elder tree. 

b. .With a sharp knife make a horizontal cut through the bark 
about one inch long. 

c. From each end of this cut make a vertical slit extending up- 
. ward about IV2 iiiches. . . 

d. Carefully peel back the flap of bark thus loosened (being 
sure to expose the sapwood) and place a thin sheet of tinfoil 
beneath the bark on the exposed surface of the wood. 

e. Turn the bark into its pla6e and seal up the incision with 
grafting wax. 

f. Examine the tinfoil at the close of the growing season. 

g. Has the deposit of new wood appeared in this instance on the 
inside or the outside of the tinfoil? 

h. Which part, then, builds the tree — ^the cambium layer or the 

sapwood? 
i. How thick is the layer of wood built this season? 
13. References. 

a. See reference under laying out an orchard. 

b. Washington Bulletin No. 90. 

c. Minnesota Bulletin No. 96. 

d. Send to the Washington Nursery Co., Toppenish, Wash., for 
their complete descriptive catalogue. 

WEATHER. 

1. Relation of weather to crops. 

a. Effect of temperature. 

b. Effect of temperature on blossoms and matured fruit. 

c. Evaporation and radiation cause temperature of plants to be 
lower than elsewhere. 

d. Variation between day and night is from 4° to 8°. 

e. Effect of irrigation on the temperature.- 

2. Eifect of direct sunshine. Fig. 178. 

a. Injury to the tissue. 

b. Injury to the leaves. 

e. Injury to the stem and trunk, 
d. Trees of heavy foliage. 

1. Protects the stem or trunk. 



MAI^UAL OF HORTICULTURE 151 

2. Protects the roots. 

3. Protects the crop. -i j £ u 
e The difference between the temperature of the soil and ot ob- 
jects in direct sunshine and of soil and of objects m shade, is 
greater than the difference between the temperature of the at- 
mosphere over or about the exposed objects and that over or 
about the shaded objects. 

f . Shutting off or admitting sunlight has what effect upon plants / 

3. Effect of humidity. 

a. Effect of low humidity on crops. 

b. Effect of high humidity on crops. 

4. Effect of local rainfall. 

a. Effect depends on humidity. 

b. Effect depends on irrigation, 

5. Effect of winds. 

a. Effect on moisture.' 

6. Weather maps. 

a. Secure maps from U. S. Weather Bureau, 
b Trace the storm. 

7. The force and direction of the wind should always receive equal 

consideration. 

8. The different kinds of clouds and what each indicates should have 
considerable consideration. 

Dew and Frost. 

1. Dew, - . ^, , 

a. Plants usually receive more heat from the sun during the day 
than they give off ; but at night the plants give off more heat 
than they receive. „ 

b. The atmosphere is, capable of holding a certain quantity of vapor 
for any assigned temperature. 

c. There is a minimum temperature at which the vapor can be sus- 
pended in the atmosphere. 

d. This minimum temperature is called the dew-point, or the dew- 
point is when the 'air contains as much vapor as it is capable of 
holding.. ; , , . ^ ; . . 

e. Dew is generally the vapor that falls in the evening, eithpr visi- 
ble or invisible, ' \ • 

f. If the temperature falls below the dew-point, the vapor that can 
be no longer held in suspension is deposited on the surface of the 
earth or, objects as, dew. , 

g. The temperature of the dew-point must be above 32°|if the 
vapor' falls ^s dew. 

h. Deposits of dew. 

1. More dew is deposited on some objects than others because 

' some objects radiate heat more rapidly than others.. ' 
. 2. More dew is deposited during a clear night than a cloudy one. 

a. Objects cool more rapidly during a clear night. 

b. The clouds act as a blanket to the earth and prevent it los- 
ing heat. ...,-■. 

3. More dew is deposited, dliriag a still night than a windy one.. 
a. Air must remain long enough in contact with cold objects 
to lower its temperature: 



152 



MAJSTUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



b. Powerful winds prevent the contact of the air with objects. 

c. The cold air at the surface is not mixed with the warm air 
above. 

Frost. 

a. When the objects are colder than 32° the dew is deposited as 
frost. 

b. When the surface of the plant has lost sufficient heat to cause 
its temperature to fall to 32° or below, frost is formed. 

e. When the dew-point is 10° or more above the frost point, 32°, a 
frost is not likely to occur; but if the dew-point approaches 
32° frost is likely to occur. 
Prediction of frost. 



d. 



1. Clear nights. 

2. Still nights. 

3. Dry atmosphere. 

4. Changes of temperature accompany changes in barometric 
pressure. 

5. Dew-point reaches 32°. 

6. Study Weather Bureau Bulletins. 
Barometric pressure. 

1. It is determined by aneroid barometer which costs about $18 
to $20. 

2. It indicates the air pressure and the highs and lows which 
may be seen marked on weather maps. 

3. High pressure is an indication of frost and low pressure 
which means that there is a considerable quantity of water 
vapor in the atmosphere, frosts are not so likely to appear. 



A 





Fig-. 133.^ — Shows a home-made psychrometer. 
A, shows the arrangement of wet bulb; 1, the bulb of the thermometer is dropped 
below the frame in order to wrap with thin muslin; 2, the heavy wire to protect the 
bulb; B shows the two thermometers soldered together; 3, the dry thermometer; 4, 
wet thermometer; 5, heavy wire loop; 6, a string tied to ring serves as a mean with 
which to whirl the psychrometer. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 153 

4. Aneroid barometer indicates the high and low pressure and 

acts as a check on the psychrometer observation. 
Measurement of atmospheric moisture. 

1. General method is to observe the temperature of evaporation. 

2. This method is determined by the difference between the tem- 
perature indicated by wet and dry biilb thermometers. 

3. Sling psychrometer is the most reliable instrument. 

a. The muslin is first tied around the bulb at top then a loop 
of thread is formed around the bottom of the bulb thus 
drawing the muslin tight over the bulb. 

b. The wet bulb must be thoroughly saturated with water by 
dipping it into a small cup or wide-mouthed bottle. 

e. The psychrometer is whirled rapidly for 15 to 20 seconds ; 
stopped and quickly read, the wet bulb first. 

d. This is repeated until two successive readings of the wet 
bulb are found to agree very closely. 

e. A good psychrometer costs about $4 to $5. 

Exercise 45. 

1. Object: To find dew-point. 

2. Method: 

a. Hang psychrometer on a wooden frame in the shade and 
open air, from four to five feet above the ground. 

b. Cover the bulb of the wet thermometer with a thin piece 
of muslin cloth, fastening it securely with thread around 
the bulb. Fig. 133A. 

c. When this cloth is wet with water and exposed to the air 
it constitutes the "wet bulb" thermometer. 

d. Whirl or fan the ''wet bulb" thermometer until the tem- 
perature ceases to fall and two successive readings are the 
same. 

e. Quickly compare the temperature of the two thermometers. 

f. For example : 

1. Dry bulb thermometer. . . . 50° 

2. Wet bulb thermometer ... . 40° 

3. Difference 10° 

g. Dew-point from table 25° 

h. Find dew-point in the following table. 

1. Read down the left column which shows difference in 
temperature between the two thermometers. 

2. Then read across to the column under the temperature 
of drv thermometer. 



154 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

g. Dew-point table from Oregon Bulletin No. 111. 

Difference of read- Temperature of Air — Fahrenheit. 

'"wet buTbs"*^ 15° 20" 25° 30° 35° 40° 45° 50° 55° 60° 65° 70° 

1 11 16 22: 27 32 38 43 48 53 58 63 69 

2... 6 12 18 24 30 35 41 46 52 57 62 67 

3 7 14 21 27 33 39 44 50 55 60 66 

4....... 1 10 17 24 30 36 42 48 53 59 64 

5 .. .. 4 13 20 27 33 40 46 51 57 62 

6 . . . . 7 16 24 30 37 43 49 55 61 

7 . . . 1 11 20 27 34 41 47 53 59 

8 5 16 24 31 39 45 51 57 

9 . ........... 11 20 28 36 43 49 55 

10 .. 4 16 25 33 40 47 53 

11 .. 11 21 30 38 45 51 

12 .... .... . . 4 17 27 35 42 47 

13 11 23 32 40 47 

14 5 18 28 37 45 

15 .... 12 24 34 42 

h. Effect of frost. 

1. Frost rnsset. 

a. It appears as a band about the center of fruit or at either 
the calyx or stem end of the mature fruit. 

b. It may be distributed over the entire surface of the pear. 

2. Frost blister. 

a. It is an injury to the foliage causing the leaves to crinkle 
and crack. 

3. Injury to buds. 

a. Sometimes buds are killed before they open, but they will 
shed their petals. 

b. Discoloration of the pistil when the flower buds are 
swollen. 

4. Injury to blossom. 

a. Flowers injured after fertilization may develop and ma- 
ture fruit. 

b. Discoloration of the basal part of the pistil of a plum, 
peach, or cherry seldom sets fruit. 

c. Discoloration may show in the minute apple seed and the 
fruit will develop to maturity if previously fertilized. 

d. The apple blossoms that show injury outside of seed cavi- 
ties do not mature fruit. 

e. The yellowing of the tissues about the stem end of the 
blossom is the first indication of fatal injury. 

5. Injury to young fruit. 

a. Discoloration and injury within the pit cavity of the stone 
fruit cause the fruit to fall at the beginning of the ripen- 
ing period. 

b. Apples frozen after the blossom has fallen proves fatal. 

6. Destruction of the fruit bloom causes 

a. Second crop bloom of the apple and the pear. 
1. First type of second crop bloom. 

a. Springs from the axil of leaf and will produce ma- 



LIANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 155 

ture fruit ; but is later and requires extension of time 
to ripen. 

2. Second type of second crop bloom. 

a. Springs from the fruit spurs from large limbs or tree 
trunks ; this type of growth seems to terminate the 
growth of a watersprout. 

3. Third type of second crop bloom. 

a. Springs from axillary fruit buds which develop when 
the earlier bloom is destroyed. 

b. This type of fruit is produced from previous season's 
growth. . . 

c. Fruit is often produced from axillary buds when 
other blooms are not killed. 

Prevention of frost. 

1. Mulching prevents the radiation of heat from the ground. 

2. Irrigation checks the radiation of heat from the surface of 
the ground; it should be used only as the last resort to pre- 
vent light frost in orchards. 

3. Irrigation is an efficient means of protection for strawberries 
and any garden crops. ■ 

4. Smudging". 

a. It is to protect the trees from the. early morning sun 
where some slight freezing of the blossoms and the fruit 
has occurred during the night. 

b. Smudges cause a dense smoke which acts like a cloud over 
the surface of the fruit. - 

c. The xiold draws the sap from the blossom and forms it into 
frost and the dense smoke keeps the sun from the blos- 
soms until the temperature rises and melts the frost and 
the moisture is returned to the blossom. 

5. Heating-. 

a. Heating is to maintain the temperature and not raise it. 

b. The danger period is from the first swelling of the buds in 
the spring until danger is past ; period of from 4 to 6 
weeks when different varieties are in the same orchard. 

c. The best time to start iires is when the temperature is at 
33° to 34°. 

d. Each orchard should be provided' with several ther- 
mometers.' 

e. The critical time is usually just before sunrise in the morn- 
ing. 

Exercise 46. 

1. Object: To show the action of frost on soils. 

2. Method: 

a. Puddle a pint of stiff clay, mold it into a ball, and bake it 
on the stove. 

b. In freezing weather moisten this ball and put it out of 
doors over night. 

c. If it does not break up the first night, moisten it again and 
subject it to the action of the frost. 

d. What happens? 

e. From_ this result what would you say of the practice of fall 
plowing ? 



158 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

f. Is there advantage of fall plowing aside from the action 
of the frost on the soil ? 
3. References. 

a. Fruit Growing by Bailey. 

b. Fruit Growing by Paddock and Whipple. 

c. U. S. Dept. Bulletin No. 401. 

d. Nevada Bulletin No. 79. 

e. Indiana Bulletin No. 154. 

f. Iowa Bulletin No. 129. 

g. Orchard Heating by B. E. Burley, Salt Lake City. 

STUDY OF INSECTS. 

1. Apparatus needed for the study of insects. 

a. Nets, cyanide bottles and a few empty bottles are needed in col- 
lecting insects. 

b. The net may be made by bending a heavy wire into a circle 
about a foot in diameter, turning the ends of the wire out and 
fastening into the end of a broomstick. 

c. Take a cheese-cloth sack a yard long and rounded to a point 
and sew onto the circular wire. 

d. The cyanide bottle for killing insects may be a wide-mouthed 
bottle, holding about one pint. 

e. Put in a few pieces of potassium cyanide and cover this with a 
layer of plaster of Paris. 

f. Thoroughly moisten the plaster and let set until it sets solid. 

g. Remove the surplus water and let the bottle become completely 
dry before using. 

h. Keep the bottle tightly corked and label POISON. 
i. Breeding- jars for rearing insects should be prepared before the 

insects are collected, 
j. Mason fruit jarswith about two inches of moistened sand in 

them, are good, 
k. Cheese-cloth or mosquito netting with closed tops held in place 
by rubber bands are good. 

Ar-throp '-o-da. 

1. The injurious insects belong to the branch arthropoda. 

2. The features that distinguish this group from all invertebrates 
is the presence of jointed legs. 

3. Classification of insects. 

a. Group 1. 

1. This includes all insects in that stage of development in 
which their mouth parts are formed for biting. 

2. These insects bite off and chew, and swallow the portions of 
the plant upon which they feed. 

3. Most of these are killed by poison. 

4. Examples of these are grasshopper, beetles, caterpillars, 
larva of the codling moth. 

b. Group 2. 

1. This includes all insects in that stage of development in 
which their mouth parts are formed for sucking. 

2. These insects obtain their food by thrusting their beaks 
into the surface of the plant and feed by sucking the juice. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 157 

3. For this reason, any poison placed upon the surface of the 
plant does not affect them. 
- 4. These must be killed by some contact spray as kerosene emul- 
sion, tobacco leaf, or sulphur-lime. 
5. Examples of these insects are plant-lice, scale insects, etc. 

c. Group 3. 

1. Insects that work in the wood of the tree. 

2. This class belongs to the class of chewing insects. 

3. They vary in their habits and must be considered in the light 
of its own history. 

4. They tunnel just under the bark and can be easily located by 
the discoloration of the bark. 

5. Example of these insects is the borers. 

d. Group 4. 

1. Insects that attach themselves to the roots. 

2. This class belongs to the class of sucking insects. 

3. Examples of these are woolly aphis, and root louse of the 
grape. 

e. Group 5. Parasites. 

.1. The most important factors in checking the spread of insects 

are the numerous parasites. 
2. Kind of parasites. 

a. Animal parasites. 

1. The most common of these are the small wasps, two- 
winged flies that deposit their eggs in or on the eggs 
and larvase of injurious insects. 

b. Vegetable parasites. 

1, Fungus diseases that will kill insects. 

a. Chinch bugs are killed by fungus disease. 

b. Cabbage worm is destroyed by the cabbage plusia. 

f. Group 6. 

1. Predacious insects search out and destroy their prey. 

2. The praying mantis, tiger beetles, lady bugs, and some wasps, 
and dragon flies. 

4. Natural agencies that destroy insects. 

a. Heavy rains. 

b. Change in temperature. 

c. "Winds. 

d. Predaceous and parasite insects. 

e. Fungus and bacterial diseases. 

Exercise 47. 

1. Object: To collect and classify the insects. 

2. Method: 

a. Collect all the insects possible. 

b. Classify them and label each bottle. 

c. Note the different stage of development. 

d. Keep the same species in the same group. 

Exercise 48. 

1. Object: To study how to preserve specimens. 

2. Method: 

a. Collect the insects. 



158 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

b. Any live insect may be quickly killed by placing in a bottle 
of cyanide and corking the bottle. 

c. Mount by sticking a slender needle through the middle of 
the insect. 

d. Should any specimens be desired to be preserved in liquid, 
place them in a solution of formaldehyde, 40% with 19 parts 
water. 

e. Insects may be preserved dry without any preservatives. 
5. An outline to study the external anatomy of each insect. 

a. Study the grasshopper first, as its parts are readily pointed out. 

b. The division of the insect. 
1. The head. 

a. Antennae (feelers). e. Mandibles (jaws). 

b. Compound eyes. f. Ligula (tongue). • 

c. Ocelli (simple eye). g. Maxillae. 

d. Labrum (upper lip). 

Exercise 49. 

1. Object: To locate the parts of the head. 

2. Method: 

a. Find the antennae (feelers). 

1. How many segments in each? 

b. Find the compound eye. 

1. Examine under a low power microscope. 

2. "What is the general shape of the facets of the eye ? 
3! In what direction can a grasshopper see? 

c. How many ocelli or simple eyes do you find? 

d. Find the upper lib or labrum^ift and remove it. . Draw. 

e. The parts exposed by the removal of the labrum is the true 
jaw or mandibles. 

1. In what direction can you move them? 

f. Point out the parts of the maxillffi. '^ ; 

1. Base segment. . 

2. Maxillary palpus (jointed appendage). 

3. Blade (large thin plate). 

4. Make a drawing of the maxillae. . . 

g. Look for the labial palpi attached to the labium. 
1. How many segments in each palpus? 

h. The maxillffi is just in front of the labium. 

1. These each consist of three parts united at the base. 

2. The outer one is the maxillary palpus. 

3. The middle spoon-shaped piece, the galea. 

4. The inner piece, the lacina or maxillae proper. 

i. Draw front view of the head, labeling all the parts. 

3. Thorax. 

a. Segments or somites. 

1. Prothorax (near head). 

2. Mesothorax (middle). 
8. Metathorax (hind). 

b. Parts of the segments or somites. 

1. Tergum is the top part. 

2. Sternum is the underneath part. 

3. Plura is the side part. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 159 

Exercise 50. 

1. Object: To study the parts of the thorax. 

2. Method: 

a: Locate the segments of the thorax. 

1. Each segment bears a pair of legs. 

2. Numbers of appendages has each segment. 

3. Breathing pores. 

b. Draw the thorax, labeling each part. 

c. Legs. 

1. Parts — beginning next to the body. 

a. Coxa. d. Tibia. 

b. Trochanter. e. Tarsus. 
e. Femur. f. Claws. 

Exercise 51. 

1. Object: To locate each part of the leg. 

2. Method: 

a. Remove one of the legs. 

b. Make a drawing of the leg, labeling each part. 

c. The direction which the legs extend from the body. 

3. Questions. 

a. How do the first and second pair of legs differ 
from the third in size? 

b. What is the use of the hooks and pads? 

d. Wing. 

1. Note the wings on one side of the body while they are 
folded, and their position with reference to the body also 
with reference to each other. 

2. Spread them out and compare as to size, shape, color, tex- 
ture, and position. 

3. Make drawings. 

e. Abdomen. 
1. Somites. 

a. There are eleven. 

d. The dorsal (upper) and ventral (under) part of each is 
composed of a single plate called the tergite or sternite. 

c. The sternite of the last three somites are wanting in the 
female. 

Exercise 52. 

1. Object: To locate the parts of the abdomen. 

2. Method: 

a. How many abdominal segments do you find ? 

b. Are the last three distinct ? 

c. Look along the grooves on each side of the abdo- 
men for spiracles. 

d. How many in each of these segments ? 

e. In hoM^ many segments are they found? 

f. Catch a live grasshopper and watch it breathe. 

g. Do the walls of the abdomen move ? 
h. How do the spiracles move? 

i. Find the ear membrane on the side of the first seg. 

ment. 
j. Examine the end of the abdomen. 



160 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

k. If it is blunt, and composed of two segment ap- 
pendages, the specimen is a male. 

1. The upper appendage is the cerei. 

m. If the end of the abdomen is tapering and divided 
into four parts, the ovipositer, the specimen is the 
female. 

n. Draw the abdomen showing all its parts. 

o. Cut through the mouth beyond the esophagus into 
the crop, open it, and examine its contents. 

p. See if you can tell what is the insect's food. 

6. Metamorphosis of insects. 

a. Development without metamorphosis. 

1. The young insect just hatched from the egg is of the same 
form as the adult. 

2, These insects merely grow larger without any more marked 
changes ; as spring-tails. 

b. Metamorphosis incomplete. 

1. The young insect just hatched from the egg greatly resem- 
bles the adult. 

2. The young insect undergoes a striking change of form dur- 
ing its life. 

3. The young insect never passes into a quiescent state similar 
to the chrysalis ; as the locust. 

4. Nymph is the term applied to young insect. 

c. Metamorphosis complete. 

1. The young insect just hatched from the egg bears almost no 
resemblance in form to the adult. 

2. The young insect undergoes several stages before it reaches 
the adult stage. 

7. The different stag-es of complete metamorphosis. 

a. The egg is the first stage. 

b. The larva is the second stage. 

1. This is the form hatched from the egg. 

2. The larvse simply eat and grow. 

3. All molting to increase in size is done in this stage. 

4. But later molts are to change shape. 

c. Pupa is the third stage. 

1. This is a period of inaction when great changes go on within 
the body. 

2. The insect either remains in old larvae skin or spins a case 
for itself. 

3. Different terms use : 

a. Chrysalis is a term applied to the pupa of a butterfly. 

b. Cocoons are terms applied to silken cases which are se- 
creted by the larvae themselves. • 

d. The adult is the last stage. 

Exercise 53. 

1. Object : To study how insects are developed. 

2. Method: 

a. Keep each insect in the breeding jar supplied with fresh 
food. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 161 

:--~ b. "Watch each successive stage of the subsequent develop- 
ments. 

c. Make careful notes and drawings on each stage. 

d. Does the insect eat the tissue or suck the juice of the 
plant ? 

e. How do you know? 

f. How does it secure its food in each stage of its develop- 
ment ? 

g. Do any of the insects, either in the larval or adult stage, 
prey upon any other insects? 

Exercise 54. 
1. Object: To study the later forms of insects. 
•2. Method: 

a. If the student has access to a pond or stream, let him col- 
lect forms which pass through all their stages of develop- 
ment in the water. 

b. Let him take a quantity of mud and water in which the 
water forms are found together with the aquatic plants for 
food, to the laboratory and place the different species in 
breeding jars. 

c. Observe all the stages in their development. 

Order Ac-a-ri'-na (mites). 

1. They are not true insects having eight legs when adults. 

2. The mode of life of the different members. 

a. Some are parasitic upon animals. 

b. Others infest living plants. 

c. Many feed upon dead animal or vegetable matter. 

3. Study external anatomy. 

a. Brown Mites. 

1. Stages of development. 

a. The egg. 

1. The egg is tiny red, globular form. 

2. The eggs are laid on the trunk, limbs, and in the crotches of 
trees. 

3. The winter is spent in the egg stage and the eggs hatch when 
warm weather comes in the spring. 

4. The eggs begin to hatch shortly after the leaves come out. 

b. Nymph. 

1. The newly hatched mites have only three pairs of legs. 

2. They continue to grow and remain red until after they molt 
for the first time, when they are brownish or olive green. 

3. They have eight legs after the first molt which remain with 
them throughout life. 

4. They do not thrive in moisture. 

c. Adult. Fig. 134—1. 

1. They are brown except the legs and head, which have a red- 
dish hue. 

2. They deposit their eggs in May, June and July. 

2. Nature and appearance of injury. 

a. They injure the apple, peach, plum, cherry, pear trees by feed- 
ing upon the foliage. 



162 



MAJSrUAL OF HORTICULTURE 




Fig-. 134 — 1, brown mite; 2, red spider: 5. lady-bird beetle, 3, larvae, 4, pupa, 6, egg. 
(Colorado Exp. Station.) 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE IS-'J 

b. They pierce through the epidermis of the leaf and suck out the 
sap. 

c. The signs of infestation are the pallid leaves and tiny black 
spots of excreta. 

d. Sometimes the foliage of the entire tree is covered, causing the 
leaves to turn yellow and drop off, thus weakening the vitality 
of the tree. 

e. The fruit of a badly infected tree is small and does not mature 
properly. 

b. Red Spider. 

1. Stag-es of development. Fig 134 — 2. 

a. See brown mite. 

b. The species of red spider is light green, with small dark colored 
spots on the back when first hatched ; and later turns to a deep 
brown or bright red. 

c. The adult spider hibernates in the winter and the few that sur- 
vive crawl out and ascend the trees to deposit their eggs when 
spring opens. 

2. The nature and appearance of injury. 

a. They injure both large and small fruit. 

b. The leaves of the infested tree are often yellow in spots which 
present a blister-like appearance. 

c. The leaves are sapped of their vitality, turn yellow and drop 
early. 

d. The fruit of an infested tree is small, often not. maturing suf- 
ficiently to be salable. 

e. Blister mites. 

1. Stag-es of development. 

a. The egg. 

1. The eggs are laid in the spring in the gall on the leaves, from 
which the young mites are hatched. 

b. Nymph. 

1. The young mites hatch and grow to full size in the parent 
blister. 

c. Adult. 

1. They migrate to the younger leaves on terminal growth and 
produce other blisters. 

2. They are about 1/16 inch across and have four legs attached 
at the anterior end. 

3. They hibernate on the trees, generally under the bud scales. 

2. Damages. 

a. They affect the leaves of the apple and pear trees. 

b. They burrow into the leaves from the under surface and feed 
on the tissue between the two surfaces. 

c. The blister or galls on the apple leaves are brown as they grow 
old, no coloration at first. 

d. The affected leaves shrink and the cells of the leaves are 
' destroyed. 

Order Or-thop'-te-ra (locust). 

1. The insects have four straight wings. 

2. the metamorphosis is incomplete. 

3. The mouth parts are formed for biting. 



164 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



4. Study the external anatomy of the grasshopper, as it is the easiest 
insect to study. 

5. Study the cockroaches. 

6. Study the thrips. 

7. Study the praying mantis. 
Order He-mip '-te-ra (bugs). 

The winged insects of this order usually have four wings. 
The metamorphosis is incomplete. 

The mouth parts are formed for piercing and sucking. 
Study the external anatomy. 

a. Apple Leaf Hopper. 
They are a tiny, active, greenish insect about an eighth of an inch 
long. 

The metamorphosis is incomplete. 

The hind legs are very slender and adapted to hopping. 
Stages of development. 

a. Egg stage. 

1. The eggs are laid in bark of the trees and hatch soon after 
the buds burst in the spring. 

2. Some pass the winter in the egg stage. 

b. Nymph stage. 

1. The nymphs are very small and generally found on the under 
side of the leaves. 

2. The first generation appears about May and feed mostly on 
the old leaves. 

3. The second, third and fourth generations appear about 
the last of June, July and August. 




b:-; 135. 



-Shows the nymphs in their development 
(Iowa Exp. Station.) 



MANUAIj of horticulture 165 

e. Adults. 

1. They are provided with wings. 

2. Some live through the winter, hiding away under dead leaves. 

3. They move very rapidly and are able to hop some distance. 
5. Damages. 

a. They retard the growth of nursery stock and apple trees. 

b. They feed on the under side of the leaves causing them to curl. 

c. The new growth is checked and the leaves grow closer together 
and the tree fails to attain the size it should. 

b. Grape Leaf Hopper. 

1. See apple leaf hoppers. 

2. They vary greatly in color, but the prevailing color is a light yel- 
lowish green. 

3. The adults are very small, measuring about one-eighth of an inch 
in length. 

4. The young resemble the adults and are green or yellowish green 
color. 

5. Damages. 

a. See apple leaf hoppers. 

c. Pear Psylla. 

1. The adult is a four-winged insect measuring one-tenth of an inch 
in length. 

2. Stages of development. 

a. Similar to the leaf hopper. 

b. The eggs are laid in the spring and hatch in a few days. 

c. There are a number of broods produced during the summer. 

d. The adults live through winter. 

3. The larvse or nymphs commence at once to suck the juice from 
the leaves. 

4. The favorite place for young nymphs is in the axil of leaves and 
at the base of the fruit stems. 

5. They occur in such a large number that entire pear orchards have 
been destroyed. 

6. Damages. 

a. The sap is sucked out of the leaves and in some instances the 
tree killed. 

b. The trees become stunted and have an unhealthy appearance. 

e. The nymphs in a few days after hatching cover themselves with 
a honey dew which disfigures the tree and fruit. 

d. The honey dew becomes covered with a black mold and the 
leaves and fruit become disfigured. 

d. Aphis, or plant lice. 
1. Stages of development, 
a. The sexual forms. 

1. Generally on the setting in of cold weather, or lack of food 
if weather is warm, there is produced a generation of indi- 
viduals of both sexes. 

2. The males are either winged or wingless. 

3. The females are wingless. 

4. The sexual forms pair and the female produces one or more 
true eggs called winter eggs. 



166 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



5. The Avinter is passed either in the egg stage or adult stage. 

b. The eg-g" stage. 

1. The eggs hatch an agamic female when warm weather comes 
in the spring. 

2. Generally when the buds open in the spring. 

c. Agamic female. 

1. She is the stock from which the summer generations spring, 

d. Spring: generations. 

1. Wingless agamic forms. 

a. They are females. 

b. Sometimes this form gives birth to living young instead 
of laying eggs, during hot weather, thus making the re- 
production very rapid. 

c. From time to time young females reproduce which become 
winged. 

2. Winged agamic forms. 

a. They reproduce the wingless agamic forms. 

b. A single individual may fly to a new plant and start a 
new colony. 

3. The cycle is continued by sexual forms being reproduced in 
the fall. 

e. The peculiar reproduction of the agamic form is often called 
budding. 

f. There are about four generations each year. 




Fig. 136. — Shows Gi'een Apple Aphis. A, stem mother just hatched from egg; B, 
winged female such as migrate from tree to tree during summer; C, wingless female 
of summer form; D, leaves curled by this aphis; B, eggs magnified; F, buds just 
opening, showing newly hatched eggs; G, Twig showing eggs as they appear in the 
winter time. (Montana Experiment Station.) 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



167 



,-^ 1. Green Apple Aphis. 

1. This is a specie which is very small having a body only about one- 
fourth inch in length. 

2. The winged aphis has two pair of delicate transparent wings. 

3. There are both winged and wingless forms. 

4. Stages of development. 
a. See aphis. 

5. They secrete a clear liquid like honey dew which sticks to the 
leaves and twigs and finally turns black because of the black 
fungus which grows in it. 

6. Damages. 

a. They injure the fruit of the apple, plum, pear, cherry and 
peach, etc. 

b. They attack the buds, leaves and twigs sucking the sap out of 
their tissues. 

c. They attack the blossoms and young fruit, causing several 
fruits to set on a single spur, but the fruit will not develop 
properly. 

d. They irritate the leaves causing them to curl. 

2. Woolly Aphis. 

1. They are very small, about the size of a pinhead. 

2. They secrete from a gland opening on the back of the insect a 
woolly, waxy substance. 

3. Stages of development. 

a. See aphis. 

b. Females both winged and wingless. 




Fig. 137. — ^Woolly aphis, a, agamic female; b, larval louse; c, pupa; d, winged 
female with antenna enlarged above. All greatly enlarged with waxy excretion 
removed. 

4. Three sources. 

a. A migration of part of the young lice from the roots to the 
limbs in the spring. 

b. A special hibernating form, which descend from the branches 
to the crown of the tree in the fall, ascend to the limbs in the 
spring. 



168 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

c. A migration of winged forms which are produced in late sum- 
mer or early fall and fly from tree to tree, 

d. The last form gives birth to sexed individuals which pair and 
deposit eggs to hatch next season. 

5. Damages. 

a. The tree form. 

1. This form is light brown. 

2. It is found on the trunk, limbs, of apple trees. 

3. It is very injurious to young trees affecting the bark which 
is made to swell when attached by the aphis. 

4. It is found in the axil of leaves and forks of branches. 

b. The root form. 

1. This form is dark brown. 

2. They live on dead roots for years; some are known to live 
for ten years on dead roots. 

3. The root forms are the same as the tree form which crawl 
down from the limbs. 

4. If the aphids are found on the limbs, it is safe to conclude 
that they are also on the roots. 

5. It is found on the fibrous roots, causing gall knots or swelling. 

c. The forms are easily recognized by the blueish-white cottony 
substance which cover the bodies. 

d. They are found on grafts and watersprouts. 

3. Black Peach Aphis. 

1. Stages of development, 
a. See aphis. 

2. The young are of a faint greenish brown color, when they reach 
the adult stage they are black. 

3. Similar to woolly aphis. 

4. The two forms. 

a. The winged form. 

b. The wingless form. 

5. The tree form. 

a. The winged aphids affect the tender shoots and leaves. 

b. Wingless aphids affect the leaves. 

6. The root forms. 

a. The wingless aphis affect the roots. 

b. They migrate from the roots to the limbs in the spring. . 

c. They breed continuously during the season except during hiber- 
nation. 

d. They cause knots to form on the roots. 

7. "When the tree is badly infested, the foliage has a yellowish green, 
sickly appearance ; the leaves become curled at the edges and 
blotch. 

4. Grape Phylloxera. 

1. Stages of development. 
a. See aphis. 

2. Damages. 

a. There appear upon the lower surface of the leaves fleshy 
swellings which are more or less wrinkled and hairy; these are 
hollow galls, opening upon the upper surface of the leaf and 
containing a wingless plant louse and her eggs. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



169 



b.-^hey cause the roots to become swollen and knotty and some- 
times decayed. 

c. There are found in these swellings agamic wingless egg-laying 
aphis. 

d. They affect young grafted stock. 

e. The entire plant is often killed by the aphis. 

e. SCALE INSECTS. 
1. San Jose Scale. 

1. The insect is concealed under a hard scale which is secreted by the 
insect. 

2. Matured scales are about a sixteenth of an inch in diameter. 

3. Stages of development. 

a. There is no egg stage. 

b. The adult female gives birth to living young about April, 
e. The winter is passed in half-grown state by both sexes. 

d. There will be found 
under the female a 
flat insect which has 
no legs, wings, 
eyes or antennaB, but 
will have a long, 
thread-like probos 
cis. 

e. Larva. 

1. The larva emerges 
from under the 
scale and crawls 

about over the Fig. iss— San Jose Scale. 

hranr'hp«3 for a a, the larva from below; b. larva just set and 

uiaiioxxco j-wx a _^^^^^ filaments beginning to appear; c, larva 

short time beiore round, convex, waxy filaments are ready to coal- 

Settline ^^^^' ^' ^^^^^ scale just formed from above and 

2. On settling, the larva inserts its sucking proboscis into the 
bark to the sap beneath. 

3. The larva begins to secrete the scale for a covering over its 
body. Fig. 138, e. 

4. Molting- periods of the female. 

a. Fluffy stage. 

1. It is from birth to first molt about 12 days. 

2. It is due to the secretion of cottony threads. 

b. Tufted stage. 

1. It is from first molt to second molt, from 6 to 8 days. 

2. It is due to the secretion of a waxy thread. 

c. Black stage. 

1. It is from second molt to maturity, from 10 to 12 days. 

2. The scale becomes thicker and passes into the mature 
• form. 

d. It takes about 30 days for the female to develop fully. 

5. The molting stages of the male are similar to the female but 
it only takes about 25 days from birth until a two-winged 
insect is developed. Fig. 143. 




170 



>LL\UAL OF HOKTICULTUEE 



4. Adult female. 

a. It is an ashy gray color and almost round in outline. 

b. It shows in the center of 
the upper surface a prom- 
inence called the nipple, 
surrounded by a darker 
colored ring. Fig. 139. 

c. It matures in about five 
weeks and commences to 
give birth to living young, 
bringing forth from three 
to four hundred within a 
few weeks and then dies. 

5. Adult male. 

a. The male differs from the 
female by being smaller, 

• darker in color and near- 
ly twice as long as wide. 

b. The nipple is at one end. 

c. The male develops into a 
tiny two-winged fly. 

d. See purple scale. 

6. Means of distribution. 

a. By the birds. 

b. By insects. 

c. By wind. 

d. By nursery stock. 

7. Damages. 

a. They affect the branches, leaves and fruit. 

b. They attack the deciduous fruit trees; shade and ornamental 
trees and shrubs. 

c. They suck the sap out of the tender leaves and bark. 

d. The bark of the trees becomes pitted and the regularity of the 
trees is altered. 

e. The growth of the tissues is arrested. 

f. The fruit becomes infested and not fit for market. 

8. Preventatives. 

a. By killing the insect or larva. 

b. By destroying the eggs. 

c. By spraying before the 
formed a protection. 

d. See spraying calendar. 

2. Oyster Shell Scale. 

1. The scale is slightly convex and usually curved in outline to re- 
semble a miniature oyster shell. 

2. Stages of development, 
a. The egg stage. 

1. The eggs are laid beneath the scale in the fall and hatch in 
the spring during April or May. 

2. The eggs are pearly white. 

3. The winter is passed in this stage. 



Fig-. 139. — Shows San Jose scale on 
and also an enlarged scale. 



larv£e or nymphs have in any way 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUEE 



171 



br Larva stage. 

1. Similar to the San Jose Scale. 
Adult female. 

a. The full grown female is about an eighth of an inch m length. 

b. By lifting a scale, there may be seen a number of pearly white 
eggs during the winter. 

Adult male. 

a. The covering of the male is shorter than the female and very 
little curved. 

b. The male develops into a tiny two-winged insect and appears in 
midsummer. 

c. See purple scale. 




Fig 140 — Shows ovster shell scale: a, female scale from beneath filled with eggs; 
b, same from above; c, twig infested by female scale; d, male scale; e, twig infested. 

5. Means of distribution. 

a. See San Jose scale. 

6. Damages. 

a. See San Jose scale. 

7. Preventatives. 

a. The winter egg should be destroyed. 

b. The young insects should be killed while they are crawling 
about. 

c. See spraying calendar. 

3. Scurfy Scale. 
1. Stages of development. 
a. The egg stage. 

1. The eggs are laid beneath the scale in the fall and hatch in 
the spring during April and May. 



172 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

2. The eggs are purplish. 

3. The winter is passed, in this stage, 
b. Larva stage. 

1. Similar to the San Jose scale. 

2. Adult female. 

a. It is about one-tenth of an inch long and very flat and pear- 
shaped in outline. 

b. The nipple is at the pointed end. 

c. The color is light grayish or white, seldom pure white. 

3. Adult male. j 

a. The male is pure white and smaller than the female and further 
differs by having parallel sides and three parallel ridges along 
the back. 

b. They are found on twigs separated from the female. 

c. They develop into a two-winged insect. 

4. Means of distribution. 
a. See San Jose scale. 

5. Damages. 

a. The injuries are insignificant compared with the San Jose scale. 

6. Preventatives. 

a. See San Jose scale. 

4, Lecanium. 

1. Stages of development. 

a. The eggs are deposited beneath the scale-like body of the female. 

b. The winter is passed either in the egg or young stage. 

2. Larva stage. 

a. Similar to the San Jose scale. 

3. Adult female. 

a. The wingless insect is about twice as long as wide and very 
small. 

b. There is very little difference between the male and female until 
the second or third stage when the female emerges as an adult. 

c. It takes several weeks before the egg laying organ is developed 
and the egg laying period lasts for several weeks. 

d. The number of eggs laid by each female varies with the different 
species from 100 to 200. 

e. It takes the female from 25 to 30 days to develop fully, depend- 
ing upon the specie. 

4. Adult male. 

a. The stage of growth is similar to the purple scale. 

b. The tv/o-winged male differs very little from the purple scale. 
Fig. 143. 

5. There are several species ; as, the black scale, soft scale, and hemi- 
spherical scale. 

6. The hemispherical scale. 

a. It is lighter color, glossy surface, smaller than black scale. 

b. It is easily killed by oil emulsion. 



MAmJAI. OF HORTICULTURE 



173 




Fi^ 141 rflin\\s llie lecanmm. (Cal. Exp. Station.) 
1. Shows the.stag-es of si-owtli of the black scale. ..,;„o. 

2 Shows how the scales attach themselves to the bark after settling. 

3. Shows the eggs of Rhizobius ventralis under a black scale. >,^fnr<. nnri 

a. The larva of which feed on the eggs, the young of the black scale before and 

b. It wiU^also'illustrate how coccinellid feed on the eggs and young of other 
sc3,1gs. 

4. Shows the hemispherical scale on left and black on the right. 

.5. Shows an inverted black scale with eggs of parasite of the scutellista. 



174 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUEE 



7. The brown scale. 

a. It is flatter and lighter color than the 
black scale. 

5. Purple. 

1. Stages of development. 

a. Similar to Lecanium. 

2. Larva stage. 

a. Similar to San Jose scale. 

3. Adult female. 

a. Similar to Lecanium. 

4. Adult male. 

a. The male is generally smaller than the fe- 
male. 




Pig. 142. — An active larva 
of purple scale. 




Fig. 143.— Shows a purple male scale. (Cal. Exp. Station.) 
1, second stage; 2, stage before pupa with the exuvium of the second state adher- 
ing to tip of body; 3, propupa; 4, pupa; 4, adult male X40. 



MANUAL OF HORTTCULTUHE 



175 



1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 



brlt takes about 25 days for the male to develop from the scale 
form to a delicate two-winged insect. 

c. The adult of the different species will differ in some of the recog- 
nition marks. 

Stages of molting' of the purple scale. 

a. The following cut will show in a general way the stages of de- 
velopment of the male insect. 

b. The appearance of the larva at different stages of development 
will dift'er according to the different kind of scales. 

c. The stages denote the molting periods of the male larva. 

d. Different scales will differ in their process of molting. 

Order Neu-rop'-te-ra. 
The insects have four wings. 
The mouth parts are formed for biting. 
The metamorphosis is complete. 
The larvae of the following feed upon other insects : 

a. Anti-lion feed upon ants and lice. 

b. Aphis-lion (lace-wing fly) feed upon plant lice and mites. 

c. Dragon flies feed upon mosquito larva. 

Order Lep-i-dop'-te-ra (Butterflies). 
The insect has four scale wings. 
The metamorphosis is complete. 

The mouth parts are formed for piercing and sucking. 
Study the external anatomy. 
Difference between butterflies and moths, 
a. Butterflies. b. Moths. 



1. Day flying, usually. 

2. Wings erect when resting. 

3. Antennse knobbed. 

4. Pupa, chrysalid. 

5. Larger. 

a. Codling Moth. 
1. The moth (g). 

a. The adult is rather variable in 
size, but the maximum wing 
expanse rarely exceeds three- 
fourths of an inch. 

b. The forewings above are of a 
brownish gray color, with nu- 
merous cross lines of gray. 

c. Near the top of each wing is a 
conspicuous brown spot, or 
ocellus, in which are two irreg- 
ular broken lines of a metallic 
coppery or golden color. 

d. The hind wings above are gray- 
ish brown, becoming darker 
toward the margin, which 
bears a delicate fringe, at the 
base of which is a narrow line. 

e. When at rest on the grayish 



Night flying, usually. 
Wings sloping when resting. 
Antennfe not knobbed. 
Pupa, often in a cocoon. 
Smaller. 




Fig-. 144.— Codling- Moth, 
a, burrow in apple; b, entrance; d. 
pupa; e, larg-e worm; f, moth closed 
wing; g-, moth wings open; h, head of 
a larva; i, cocoon. 



176 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

bark of an apple tree, the color of the moth so harmonizes with 
its surrounding that it is not readily distinguished. 

f. Shortly after the moths leave their cocoons (i) the sexes mate 
and females begin to deposit eggs which are on the average of 
50 eggs for each female moth. 

g. The moth appears in the spring about two weeks or more after 
the beginning of the blooming period, or when about 80 per cent 
of the petals have fallen. 

h. The moths mate and eggs are laid in a day or two which hatch ^ 

in about 8 days. 1 

2. The egg. ™ 

a. The eggs are small, flat, somewhat oval in shape and about the 
size of a pinhead, 

b. When recently deposited they are of a pearl white color, but be- 
come darker with the development of the embryo, which, after 
a few days are easily distinguished as a reddish ring within the 

c. Under a lens the surface is seen to be covered with a network 
of ridges, coarser toward the edge. 

d. The eggs are deposited on leaves, twigs, and blossom end of the 
apple. 

3. The larva (e). 

a. It is in the larval or ''worm" stage that injury is done to the 
apple. 

b. The larva as it hatches from the egg is very small, from one- 
twentieth to one-sixteenth of an inch in length, and it soon be- 
gins to search for food. 

c. The larvae chew more or less into the leaf or other portions of 
the plant in their wandering around. 

d. The head is brown and well developed. 

e. There are eight pairs of legs ; three pairs of which are true legs, 
on the thorax, and five pairs of which are prolegs on the ab- 
domen. 




Fig. 145. — Shows a full grown larva, magnifled. 

f. When the codling worm emerges from its egg-shell it is small, 
delicate and hungry, and seeks for shelter and food in some dark 
place. 

g. The blossom end of the apple provides both, and actually at- 
tracts about 80 per cent of the worms, whether early or late in 
the season. 

h. That the majority of the coddling worms are instinctively di- 
rected to the calyx cavity is probably due to the absence of a 
tough skin and the presence of the nectaries at this place. 

i. Some worms eat their way through the side of the fruit, even 



]\£ANUAL OF HORTICULTUHE 177 

^though this part be covered with a woolly coat or with a tough 

skin, 
j. Where tvfo apples touch, or where a leaf overlaps an apple, the 

codling worm is apt to begin feeding. 
k. After entering the apple the larva feeds and grows rapidly and 

in the course of about twenty days has become full grown and 

emerges from the apple. 
1, At this time the insects are about three-fourths of an inch long, 

and the majority of them are pinkish or flesh colored on the 

upper surface and whitish below, 
m. When ready to leave the fruit, the larva eats out a hole at the 

side, or less usually makes its exit by enlarging the entrance 

hole. 
n. If the infested apple is hanging on the tree, the larva usually 

makes its way out to the limb and thence crawls down the 

branches to the trunk until a suitable place for pupation is 

found. 
o. If the apple has fallen before the larva has gotten its growth, 

the latter simply crawls to a convenient place and there con- 
structs a cocoon. 
4. The pupa (d). 

a. The full grown larva, upon leaving the fruit and finding a pro- 
tected place, constructs a whitish silken cocoon (i) within which 
in the course of a few days it may change to a pupa. 

b. The pupa is about one-half inch long, at first, yellowish or 
brown, but later becoming quite dark brown, and shortly before 
the emergence of the moth assuming a distinct bronze color. 

c. This stage varies much in length, but on the average about 
twenty days elapse from the spinning of the cocoon until the 
emergence of the moth. 

d. After emergence of the moths, in the course of a few days they 
begin egg laying, the entire life cycle from egg to egg requiring, 
on the average, some fifty days. 

Exercise 55. 

1. Object : To tell when the moth appears. 

2. First method : 

a. Prepare a breeding cage by taking a wide-mouthed fruit 
jar and tie some light wire gauze over the mouth so that 
neither worm nor moth can get out; or 

b. Enclose an entire branch with gauze netting and also the 
moth should be caged within, 

c. All cages and bottles should be kept in the orchard and 
under a tree so as to be in conditions as natural as pos- 
sible. 

d. Refer daily to your cage when the apples begin to blossom. 

e. Compare the emerging of the moth with the falling of the 
petals. 

3. Second method: 

a. Band the trees with heavy strips of cloth or burlap. 

b. Fasten one of the cloths to the tree by driving a finishing 
nail in order that the other end may be attached to the 



178 



IMAJSrUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



same nail, but make a fold in the cloth before wrapping 
the tree. 

c. Examine the bands every 10 days as it only takes about 20 
days for the larva to change to a moth. 

d. Note : The above exercise will tell when to spray and also 
what effect the last spray had. 

The number of generations. 

a. The number of generations of the codling moth in a season var- 
ies with the latitude and region. 



1 



1. Wintering larva 

2. Spring pupa ^ 

3. Moth of 1st brood J 

4. Egg of 1st brood 

5. Larva of 1st brood 

6. Pupa of 2d brood 

7. Moth of 2d brood 



. Second or third generation 



.First generation 



Second generation. 



May 



f 8. Egg of 2d brood 

I 9. Larva of 2d brood, if wintering return to 1 

■J 10. Pupa of 3d brood 

L 11. Moth of 3d brood 

„ ^. , ^, . , .. S 12. Egg of 3d brood 

Partial third generation , . . . ^ ^3 Larva of 3d brood 

June July August September October 




Fig. 146.^Life cycle of a codling moth. 



b. Tabular form of the 
course of development 
by Melander. 

1. Study when- the 
moths of the differ- 
ent broods appear. 

2. Study when the 
larvse of the differ- 
ent broods appear. 

3. Study when the pu- 
pation of the differ- 
ent broods take 
place. 

c. Life cycle from egg to 

^gg' a, m"oth or adult; b, egg; c, larva; d, pupa; e, 

1 F'rom effS" to larva 8 pupa in cocoon on inner side of piece of bark; 

■ ' °° f, moth on bark and empty pupa skin from 

days. which it emerged. 

2. From larva to pupa 19 days. 

3. From pupa to moth 18 days. 

4. From moth to middle of egg-laying 5 days. 

5. Total of fifty days. 

d. The wintering of larva : See above diagram, Nos. 1, 9 and 13, 

1. In late summer or fall, larvae will seek protected places upon 
the trees, as holes, cracks or crotches of limbs, or under bark 
scales, or even imderneath trash on the ground, construct 
tough cocoons, and here pass the winter in the larval condi- 
tion. 

2. In the spring, the larvae enter new cocoons or remodel win- 
ter cocoon and in about 18 days the moths emerge. 

Damages. 

a. They injure the fruit of the apple, pear, quince and English 
walnut. 

b. The greater part of the life of the larva is spent within the 
fruit, during which period it feeds freely On the substance of 



">IANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



l.i) 




Fig. 147. — Section of a wormy apple; codling moth; larva. 

the apple, eating out a cavity or tunnel and pushing out from 
the entrance hole a considerable quantity of powdery brown 
frass. 

c. Most apples injured when small, as by larva? of the first gen- 
eration, drop from the trees, and these are a large percentage 
of the so-calied windfalls. 

d. Larvfe of the first generation will mostly enter the fruit at the 
blossom end, some, however, entering at the side, as where two 
fruits are in contact or where an apple is touched by a leaf. 

e. Larvfe of the second generation enter the fruit more from the 
side than the calyx end, and by reason of their greatly increased 
numbers cause the larger part of the total injury. Fig. 147. 

f. In localities where a third or partial third brood may occur, the 
habits of this generation are no doubt practically identical to 
those of the second. 

b. Cutworms. 

1. The cutworms are among the most troublesome insects with which 
the farmer has to deal. 

2. The cutworms are ' ' general feeders ' ' and are able to find a living 
anywhere. 

3. The cutworms are generally nocturnal, remaining hidden during 
the day concealed around the plants which they have destroyed 
during the previous night. 

4. Most species are single-brooded northward, but many produce two 
or more broods southward. 

5. Principal species. 

a. Greasy cutworm. 

b. Granulated cutworms, 
e. Fall army worm. 

d. Army worm. 

e. Variegated cutworms. 

a. Variegated Cutworms. 
1. The variegated cutworm is the most destructive and widely known 
of all cutworms. 



180 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



2. Stages of development. 

a. The egg. 

1. The eggs are deposited often in large masses on grasses, 
weeds, leaves and twigs. 

2. The eggs hatch in from 10 to 12 days. 

b. The larva. 

1. The larva is about 
one and three- 
fourths inches in 
length. 

2. The larvffi feed on 
all parts of the 
plants. 

3. The larvEe of the va- 
riegated cutworms 
are climbing worms 
and when abundant 
assume the army 
worm habit. 




4. The larva is cosmo- 



Pig-. 148. — Variegated cutworm, a, adult; 
b, larva, sideview; c, same curled up; d, 
dark- colored larva; e, sing'le egg; f, cluster 
of eggs on twig. 

politan in the broadest sense of the word in its feeding 
habits. 

c. The pupa. 

1. The larva having attained full growth enter the earth and 
construct a compact earthen cell or cocoon which is lined 
with a silken substance. 

2. The larva remains in pupal stage from three to six weeks 
before the moth appears. 

d. Adult. 

1. The adult is a large moth with pale, grayish-brown fore- 
wings tinged with reddish and shaded with darker brown. 

2. There is a considerable variability in markings, which is often 
suffused. 

3. The last appearing generation of moths issues from the 
ground in mid-summer or autumn and deposit eggs from 
which larvae hatch and feed until cold weather drives them 
to their winter quarters. 

e. Winter hibernation. 

1. Some species pass the winter in the pupal condition. 

2. Some species pass the winter in the larva stage, which is 
generally the last appearing larva of the season and only 
half to three-quarters grown. 

3. Some species pass the winter in the adult stage. 
Damages. 

a. The cutworms feed upon anything green and succulent, whether 
foliage, flowers, buds, fruit, stalks, tubers, or roots. 

b. The variegated cutworms are destructive to foliage of fruit 
trees and from their habits of climbing are known as climbing 
worms. 




MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 181 

4. Preventatives. 

a. Poisoned bait. 

b. Bran arsenic mash. 

c. Bordeaux mixture. 

c. Bud Moth. 

1. Adult is very small, measuring about three-fourths of an inch 
across the wing. 

2. Study the external anatomy. 

3. Stages of development, 
a. The egg. 

1. The eggs are laid in June and July on the underside of the 

2. The eggs hatch in about 8 days and the larvffi feed on the 
under side of the leaves. 

b The larva. 

1. The larvae protect 
themselves by a thin, 
silken web. 

2. They migrate before 
winter to the twigs and 
form the silken case in 
which they live during 
the winter. 

3. In the spring about the 
time the buds open, the 

larvae come forth and -^^g i49_Apple tree Bud Moth; a, moth; 

bore into the buds, and b. larva; c pupa. 

as the leaves and 

flowers unfold, form nests by tying the leaves together. 

4. They do not leave their nests to feed. 

5. They become full grown during June. 

c. Pupa. 

1. They pupate in the nest. 

2. They pupate in about 10 days, a small brown moth emerg- 
ing. 

3. They begin to lay eggs for the next geenration. 

d. Damages. 

1. They injure the fruit of the apple, cherry, peach, pear, plum 
and quince. 

2. They destroy the foliage and eat into the fruit buds and 

leaf buds. . 

3. Sometimes large trees are so severely injured that the fruit 
crop is almost destroyed. 

4. Note : • Study the following moths. 

a. Tiger moth. 

b. Tussock moth. 

c. White-marked Tussock moth. 

f. Case-Bearers. 
1. Two species. 

a. Pistil case-bearers, 
b. Cigar case-bearers, 
c. Their life history is similar. 



182 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 




Fig. 150. — Pistol Case-Bearer; a, af- 
fected twigs and leaves; b, larva; c 
cocoon; d, moth. 



Stages of development. 

a. The egg. 

1. The eggs of both species are deposited singly on the under 
sides of the leaves during May and June. 

2. They hatch in about 10 to 14 days. 

b. The larvae. 

1. The larva feed on the tender pulp of the leaves. 

2. They migrate dur- 
ing September to 
the branches and 
twigs to remain 
until spring in 
their silken cases. 

3. They becoiae ac- 
tive in the spring, 
feeding while they 
remain in their 
cases. 

4. They enlarge their 
silken cases as 
their growing 

bodies demand iintil about the middle of May, when they 
are ready to pupate. 
c The pupa. 

1. The case-bearers migrate to the twigs and attach themselves 
to the bai^k. 

2. Thiey turn around in the case so that their heads will be 
tovvard the upper and curved ends. 

3. The pupation lasts about two weeks. 

4. The uiolhs tippear during May and June. 
Principal difference between the species. 

a. Tbe case of tJio cigar case-bearers is straight. 

b. The case of tbe pistol case-bearer resembles a pistol. 

c. The color of the cigar case-bearer is steel gray. 

d. The color of the pistol case-bearer is brown. 
Damages. . 

a. Tbcy effect tbe apple and pear trees. 

b They attack the growing buds in the spring. 

e They injure 1he leaves by feeding on the soft tissues. 

d. They attack the flower buds, flowers and fruit. 

e. Spring Canker Worms. 
Stages of developm^ent. 

a. The egg, 

1. The small oval eggs are laid in irregular bunches on the 
bark of main branches. 

2. The eggs hatch about the time that the leaf buds open. 

b. The caterpillar, or larva. 

1. The catterpillars have very small body and of olive green 
color. 

2. The caterpillars are about an inch long and have eight longi- 
tudinal bands. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



183 



3. Head and shield are shiny black. 

4. They crawl to the ground when full grown to pupate. 

1. The caterpillars go into the ground where they spin a silken 

cocoon. • • j-i, - n 1 

2. They emerge in the spring, but sometimes m the laii ana 

winter in pupation. 
The adult moths. ^ , • i 

1 The males have wings, while the females are wnigioss. 

2. When the females emerge they ascend the tree to lay their 

[-;. The flying season is m the spring. 




-Pi^ ifil — SOTins: canker worm. Fig-. 152.— Fall canker worm. 

a. m^fmoS; b^Slle'moth; ^%ints of a, male -o«. ^ Jemale moth; c, 3on.ts of 

caterpillar; d, eggs. caterpillar, a, e^^s. 

f . Fall Canker Worm. 
1. Stag-es of development. Fig. 152. 

a. Thp B^^. 

1. ThelmaJl irregular eggs are laid in regular masses on twigs 

and leaves in the fall. 
2 They are hatched about the time the leaf buds open 
]). The caterpillar, or larva. 

1 . The caterpillars are small and of a light green color. 
^ 2. They are about an inch long and have 6 longitudinal bands. 
8. No {ibdominal spines. 
4, They crawl to the ground when full grown to pupate. 

c Pupa. , • -n 

1. The caterpillars go into the ground, where they spin a sillien 

cocoon. 

2. Thoy emerge in the fall as moths. 

d. The adult moths. 

1 The males have wings while the females are wingless. 

2 The females ascend the trees to lay their eggs, 

3. Few of the moths live through the winter. 

4. The flying season is in the fall. 

e. The females may be easily caught by banding the trees. 

f. The caterpillars are commonly known as measuring worms, inch 
worms, or span worms. 

g. Damages. 

1. The caterpillars feed upon the tender leaves of the apple and 
the pear trees and some times defoliating them. 

g. Green Fruit Worms. 
1 See bud moth. 

2. Stages of development. 

a. The egg. . . -, 

1. The eggs arc laid in the spring and hatch m a tew days. 



184 



MAi^JAL OF HOETICULTURE 




b. Larva. 

1. They are yelJowish-green color with cream-colored markings 
and stripes down the back. 

2. They are about one and 
one-half inches long when 
full grown. 

3. They are most abundant in 
May. 

o Pnnn Fig. 153. — Green fruit worm; 

^- ^^V<^- a, larva; b, moth. 

J. When the larv« are full grown, they go into the ground and 
spin a cocoon and pupate. 

d. The adult moths. 

1. They emerge from their cocoons as dull-colored moths, meas- 
uring about two inches from tip to tip of wings. 

2. They remain over winter in some sheltered place, laying eggs 
in the spring. 

3. Damasfep. 

a. Th'^y nffect the apples, pear, plum, peach and quince trees, 
b They feed upon young fruit. 

e. They feed at night, resting on the under side of the leaves dur- 
ing the day. 

h. Fall Web Worms. 

1. The moths are of a pure white color. 

2. Sometimes the wings are spotted with 
black. 

3. Stages of development. 

a. The egg. 

1. The eggs are laid by the female 
during July, on leaves in masses 
of 400 to 500. 

2. They are of a pale yellowish- 
green color. 

3. They hatch in about 10 days. 

b. The larva or caterpillar. 

1. They seem to be almost all head 
and hair ; commence to spin their 
web over the foliage. 

2. The web extends over quite an 
area enclosing the foliage upon 
M^hich they feed. 

3. Within this web the colony from an egg mass feeds, enlarg- 
ing it as it becomes necessary. 

4. The caterpillars will leave their web and form a new web 
upon fresh foliage when the foliage within the old web is 
consumed. 

5. The caterpillars are about one inch long and quite woolly. 

6. The caterpillars molt about five times before pupation. 




Pig. 154. — Fall web worm; a, 
b, caterpillar; c, cocoon; d, moth. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUKE 



185 




c. Pupa. 

1. The caterpillars find secluded places under barK, rubbish in 
fence corners, cracks of buildings, under eaves, surface of 
loose soil and sometimes in old cocoons. 

2. They spin their cocoons which are flimsy affairs. 

3. They shed their skin for the last time and then transform 
into moths. 

4. They pass the winter in pupa stage and emerge in June. 

d. The adult moths. 

1. The moths lay their eggs in July. 
4. Damag-es. 

a. They affect the foliage of the apple and pear trees, 
i. Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar. 

1. The moth is brown, with two oblique par- 
allel white lines on the forewings. 

2. Stages of development. 

a. The egg. 

1. The eggs of each are laid in July in 
masses about the twigs. 

2. The eggs remain unhatched for 
about nine months. 

3. The eggs are covered with a sub- 
stance which protects them during 
winter. 

4. The eggs hatch in early spring 
about the time the leaves appear. 

b. Caterpillar, or larva. 

1. They form a colony from each egg 
mass and spin a tent in which they 
stay when not feeding. 

2. They generally migrate down the 
branch until they find a good-sized 
fork to build a large tent, which is 
often 2 feet or more in length. 

3. They go out daily to feed ; and spin a silken thread wherever 
they go. 

4. They spin thin cocoons in about five or six weeks after 
hatching. 

c. Pupa. 

1. The caterpillars, when full grown, find a sheltered place to 
spin cocoon and to pupate. 

2. It takes about three weeks for the pupation. 

d. The adult moths. 

1. They emerge in the latter part of June or early July. 

2. The females lay their eggs in July. 

3. Damag-es. 

a. The young caterpillars feed upon the unopened buds until the 
leaves expand. 

b. The apple is greatly injured by the caterpillars. 

4. Note : Study the following. 

a. The yellow-necked apple caterpillar. 




Fig. 155. — Apple tree tent 
caterpillar; a, b, caterpillar; 
c, egg mass; d. cocoon; e, 
moth. 



186 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



b. The red-humped apple caterpillar. 

c. Brown-tail moth. 

d. Gypsy moth. 

j. Peach tree borer. 

1. The adult moths are a beautiful blue color. 

2. Stages of development. 

a. The egg. 

1. They are laid on the bark of the trees near the ground during 
May and June. 

2. They are small, reddish and oval in shape. 

3. They hatch in from 9 to 10 days. 

4. Each female may lay from 200 to 800 eggs. 

b. The larva. 

1. The young at once seek cracks in the bark where they feed 
upon the sapwood during the remainder of the season. 




Fig. 156. — The peach tree borer, a, female moth; h, male moth; c, larva; d, female 
pupa; e, male pupa; f, pupa skin and cocoon. 

2. Their location is easily detected by the powdery light brown- 
ish frass that is pushed out from their burrow. 

3. They remain in this stage in the tree through the winter and 
feed again in the spring before they pupate. 

c. Pupa. 

1. The larvae leave their burrows and construct cocoons at or 
near the surface of the ground on the trunk of trees or on 
the loose soil. 

2. The larvas emerge from their cocoons in about 3 or 4 weeks 
as moths. 

d. The adult moths. 

1. The moths mate and the female at once begins to deposit her 
eggs. 
3. Damages. 

a. They affect the fruit of the apricot, prune, plum and peach trees. 

b. They affect the above varieties by boring into the sap wood. 

k. Peach twig borer. 

1. The stages of development are like the peach tree borer. 

2. There are two or three genrations during the summer. 

3. Damages. 

. a. Early in the spring as the foliage is putting out, the larvae be- 
gin to leave their burrows and attack the tender leaves and 
shoots, boring into and down the pith. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUEE 187 

b. The injured shoots soon wilt and die. 

c. The larva enters the peach at the stem end boring into the pit, 
causing the stone to burst as the fruit ripens. 

d. The larva may make its way to and around the stone, if split, 
it may enter and feed upon the seed. 

e. The larvae of the summer broods feed beneath the bark or in the 
fruit stem of the peach. 

Order Dip '-te-ra (flies). 

1. The adult insects have ,two wings. 

2. The mouth parts are formed for sucking. 

3. The metamorphosis is complete. 

4. Study the external anatomy. 
a. House fly. b. Mosquito. 

5. They are agents of disease. 

6. Study the fungus gnat. 

a. It causes gall spots on leaves and twigs. 
a. Apple Mag-got. 

1. The adult is a two-winged, black and white fly, 

2. Stages of development. 

a. The egg. 

1. The eggs are deposited in June in the fruit by the female 
puncturing the skin with her sharp ovispositor. 

2. They hatch in a few days into maggots or larvse. 

b. The mag-gots or larvae. 

1. They make numerous channels in the pulp of the fruit. 

2. The infested fruit generally falls early. 

3. The winter is passed in larvae state in the ground. 

4. The maggots crawl out of the fruit and enter the ground to 
pupate. 

c. Pupa. 

1. The pupa is enclosed in the last larva skin which serves as a 
cocoon. 

2. They emerge from their cocoon in June. 

d. They damage the fruit of the apple. 

e. They can be checked by fall plowing and destroying windfall 
apples by allowing hogs to run in the orchard. 

3. Study the pomace fly. 

Order Co-le-op '-te-ra (Beetles). 

1. The insects have a pair of horny wing covers, beneath which there 
is a single pair of membrane wings. 

2. The mouth parts are formed for biting. 

3. The metamorphosis is complete. 

4. Study the external anatomy. 

a. Flat-headed apple tree borer. 
1. The beetle is about i/2-inch long and flattish oblong. 



188 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



2. Stages of development. 

a. The egg. 

1. The eggs are deposited "imder the 
loose scales or within the cracks of the 
bark during the summer. 

2. The eggs hatch in a short time and the 
larvse bore channels in the sap wood. 

b. The larva. 

1. It remains in the sapwood until shortly 
before pupation then it bores deep into 
the solid wood. 

c. Pupa. 

1. It takes from one to three years for the 
larvEe to change to a beetle. 




Pig. 157. 
apple borer. 



Flat-headed 
a, the borer 



d. The beetles are steel colored, flattened f^ii grown; b pupa; c 

, -,1 . 1 -, ■ ,1 verse side of the head; d, 

above with irregular de pression on the beetle. 

wing covers. 
These borers attack apple, pear, peach trees. 

The presence of the larva may be detected by the discoloration of 
the bark or exudation of sap or sawdust castings. 
They should be dug out of the trees. 

b. Round-headed apple tree borer. 
The beetle is about %-ineh long. 




apple tree 
the larvae; c, the female; 



2. It is brown and has two broad 

white stripes extending the length 

of the body. 
8. Stages of development. 

a. It is similar to that of the flat- 
headed apple tree borer. 

4. The borers tunnel into the inner 
bark and the sapwood, and also 
bore around the tree and girdle it 

5. It takes about three seasons for 
the larva to reach maturity. 

6. They are very injurious to the young apple trees. 

7. They are detected the same as the flat-headed apple tree borers 

c. Apple Twig Borers. 

1. The beetle is about 1/3-inch 
long, cylindrical form, 
brownish above and black 
underneath. 

2. Stages of development, 
a. It is similar to the flat- 
headed apple tree borer. 

3. They attack the apple, pear, 
cherry, and other trees, and 
bore into the twigs just 
above a bud for food and 
shelter. 

4. The infested limbs should be 
cut off and burned. 

d. Fruit Bark Beetle. 
1. The stages of development 




Fig. 159. — Apple twig borer. a, 
views of beetles; b, pupa; c, larva; 
twig burrows. 



two 

e, f. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



189 



are like the flat-headed apple tree borer. 

2. Damages. 

a. They attack plum trees in preference to other plants. 

b. They infest the apple, peach, cherry, plnm, pear, quince, apri- 
cot trees. 

c. The larvai live beneath the bark where they feed upon the sap- 
wood. 

d. The beetles generally infest the sickly tree. 

3. The infested trees should be burnt. 



3. 



4. 



5. 




Fig. 



160.— Fruit Bark-Beetle; a, adult; b, beetle in profile; c, pupa; d, larva. 

e. Plum Curculio. 

The beetle is about i/4-inch long, brown with grayish black spots. 
The beetles leave the trees 
in the fall and hide away in 
secure places for the winter 
period of hibernation. 
The beetles emerge from 
their hiding places in the 
spring when the vegetation 
begins to grow and the buds 
begin to push out. 
The beetles mate about the 
time the trees begin to bloom 
and deposit their eggs when 
the young fruit begins to en- 
large. 
Stages of development. 

a. The egg. 

1. The eggs are deposited during June, July and August. 

2. The eggs are deposited in the young fruit by puncturing the 
tissue and inserting the eggs. 

3. A crescent-shaped groove is cut around one side of eggs to 
prevent the growing tissue from crushing the eggs. 

4. The eggs are hatched in from 4 to 6 days. 

5. The beetles die after they deposit their eggs. 

The larvae. 

1. The larvffi feed for about 20 days in the fruit, then they bore 
out of the fruit and enter the ground as matured larvae. 




Fig 
adult, 



161. — Plum curculio; 
pupa, infected plums. 



shows larva. 



b. 



190 



JVIANUAL OF HOJiTiUUi^riiiL 



c. The pupa. 

1. The larvas remain in the ground for about 28 days and 
emerge as a perfect beetle. 

2. The larvffi are large white grubs. 

d. The beetles. 

1. They remain quiet for a few days then they fly to the trees 
to feed on the fruit. 

2. The beetles of the new generation cause the greatest injury 
to the fruit crops. 

6. Damages. 

a. The larvas or maggots cause the fruit to drop before ripe and 
hard knots to form on the fruit. 

b. They affect apples, cherries, plums, peaches, pears and quince 
buds and leaves, and the larvge bore into the fruit around the 
pit. 

c. The curculio of the apple, cherry, peach, pear, haws and quince 
are similar to the plum curculio! 

d. They may be caught and destroyed by jarring them off the tree 
into a sheet. 

7. Note : Study the following : 

a. Plum gouges ; b. Tiger beetle ; c, Ladybug. 

Order Hy-me-nop'-te-ra. 

1. The insects have four membranous wings. 

2. The mouth parts are formed for biting and sucking. 

3. The metamorphosis is complete. 

4. Study the external anatomy. 
a. Study the bee and wasp. . 

a. Saw Fly. 

1. They belong to the order 
that has four wings of a 
delicate membranous text- 
ure. 

2. The bees, wasps, and ants 
belong to the same order. 

3. Study one of the above in- 
sects if a saw fly can not 
be secured. 

4. Stages of development, 
a. The egg. 

1. The egg is oval in 
outline sometimes- 
slightly flattened at 
one side. 

2. It is pale and almost 
colorless appearing 
light green through 
the leaf tissue. 

3. The eggs are depos- 
ited in the tissue of 
the leaves. 




Fig. 162. 



-The eggs of a pear- slug or saw-fly. 
(Iowa Exp. Station.) 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



191 



4r They are placed just 
beneath the epider- 
mis of the upper side 
of the leaf by the fe- 
male saw fly. 
b. The larva or slug. 

1. The young larva 
emerges from the 
egg to the upper sur- 
face of the leaf, cut- 



2. 



ting 
hole 
mis. 
The 



a 
in 



semi -circular 
the epider- 



body is pale, 
free from slime-, the 
head is light brown 
and the thorax is 
broad. 

3. The slug molts from 
five to seven times. 

4. A coat of slime is se- 
creted very soon 
after hatching and 
the slug then ap- 
pears dark olive 
green in color, with 
a dark brown head. 

5. The larvfe drop to 





Fig. 163. — The nipture larva. 
(Iowa Exp. Station.) 




Fig. 164. — Shows two cocoons of the 
peai' slug-. (Iowa Exp. Station.) 



Fig. 165. — The 
pupa. (Iowa Ex- 
per. Station.) 




the ground when they are molting for the last time. 
Pupa. 

1. The larva forms an earthen cell lined with sticky substance, 
making the particles of earth adhere. 

2. The earthen cells are found one or more inches below the sur- 
face of the soil in summer ; deeper for winter. 

3. The larva pupates in 6 to 8 days after entering the cocoon if 
an adult saw fly is to emerge the same year ; but if to emerge 
the next spring the larva remains as it is until spring, pupat- 
ing just before emerging. 



192 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



4. The adult saw fly emerges from the cocoon and deposits its 
eggs in the spring or summer. 

d. Adiilt saw fly. 

1. It emerges in the 
spring from its win- 
ter cocoon which 
may be of the first 
generation or second 
generation. 

2. There is no proof 
that the saw flies 
mate. 

3. Note: Study 

a. The rose slug. 

b. Currant worm. 
5. Numbers of g-enerations. 

a. There are two genera- 
tions each year. 




Fig-. 166. — The adult saw-fly. 
(Iowa Exp. Station.) 



April 



10 20 3 
Ad 



May 




Jc 



10 20 3 



Goooons 
A 



July 



19 2« 



dnlts • 



August 



10 



September 



10 20 3 



October 



10 20 3 



Diagram of the Life Cycle. 

b. Study the above diagram. 

1. Study when the flies of the different broods appear. 

2. Study when the larvge of the different broods appear. 

3. Study when the pupation of the different broods takes place. 

c. Life cycle from egg- to %gg. 

1. From eggs to larvse about 18 days. 

2. From larvrs to pupa about 19 days. 

3. From pupa to adult about 8 days. 

4. From adult to middle of egg-laying about 5 days. 

5. Total of about 50 days. 
Damages. 

a. The larvae feed upon the leaves of the pear, plum, cherry and 
quince. 

b. The slugs feed on the upper surface of the leaves, not eating 
holes through them, but taking the upper portion and leaving 
the vines bare. 

c. The injured trees appear as if they had been scorched by fire. 

d. The damaged leaves turn brown, curl up and finally fall. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 193 

Preventatives. 

1. See spraying calendars. 

2. Study the preventatives given in bulletins and in books. 

References. 

1. Manual for the Study of Insects by Comstocks. 

2. Practical and Descriptive Zoology by Colton. 

3. Practical Zoology by Davison. 

4. Economic Entomology by Smith. 

5. Fruit Growing in Arid Region by Paddock and Whipple. 

6. Insects Injurious to Fruits by Saunders. 

7. New Mexico Bulletins Nos. 35, 68. 

8. Colorado Bulletins Nos. 112, 114, 152. 

9. New York Bulletin No. 170. 

10. Ohio Bulletin No. 164. 

11. New Hampshire Bulletin No. 109. 

12. "Washington Bulletin No. 77. 

13. Iowa Bulletin No. 130. 

14. The Spraying of Plants by Lodeman. 

15. Write to U. S. Dept. of Agriculture and to the different State Ex- 
perimental Stations for bulletins on any of the above insects. 

STUDY OF PLANT DISEASES. 
Cryp '-to-gams. 
1. The Cryptogams. 

a. They are seedless plants and are propagated by means of spores. 

b. The spore is a single organic body consisting of a single cell 
which separates from the parent plant at maturity and gives 
rise to a new individual. 

e. Three great orders of the cryptogams. 

1. Thallophytes or thallus plants. 

a. The thallus plant is the simplest kind of a vegetable struc- 
ture. 

b. Two divisions. 

1. Algae, as seaweeds, pond scums. 

2. Fungi. 

a. Mushrooms, puffballs, molds, rust, mildew and 
lichens. 

b. Miscroscopic organisms, as bacteria. 

1. Produces fermentations, putrification and disease 

2. Bryophytes or Moss Plants. 

a. Mosses. 

b. Liverworts. 

3. Pteridophjrtes or Fern Plants. 

a. Ferns. 

b. Horsetails. 

c. Club mosses. 

d. The study of the cryptogams will aid in understanding 
the, lower form of plant life and make the studv of the 
fungi easier. 

Plant Diseases. 
1. The word disease may be applied to any unhealthy or abnormal 
condition in a plant which may be caused by faulty nutrition 
fungi and bacteria. * ' ' 



194 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

2. Any disease involves three things. 

a. A plant to be diseased. 

1. Some varieties of plants are more susceptible to diseases 
than others. 

2. Vigorous and healthy trees resist the attacks of diseases 
while weak ones are susceptible to the attacks of disease. 

3. Trees that are injured by insects are susceptible to diseases. 

4. A plant upon which a parasite lives is called its host. 

b. Environments. 

1. Heavy dews and cloudy damp weather are favorable to the 
development of fungus diseases. 

2. The weather is very important and it sometimes is erron- 
eously given credit for the diseases. 

3. Proper selection of an orchard site, and careful and thorough 
pruning will aid in preventing diseases. 

4. A site located on high land with good air drainage is less 
susceptible to disease and winter injury. 

5. A tree pruned to admit air and sunlight is less susceptible to 
disease. 

6. Good soil, good cultivation, good air drainage, and free from 
weeds are direct preventives to diseases. 

7. Things that help diseases. 

a. Weeds protect many diseases and pests during winter. 

b. Dead and dying branches in the trees. 

c. Old dying trees in young orchards harbor diseases and 
pests. 

d. Peach and pear trees in any apple orchard may carry 
brown rot^ curculio, crown gall and pear blight. 

c. Bacteria and fungi. 

1. They belong to the lower forms of life and are very different 
from the familiar green plants in their manner of reproduc- 
tion and in their method of obtaining food. 

2. Because of their lack of chlorophyll or green coloring mat- 
ter they are unable to make their own starch and sugar good 
material and are compelled to depend upon other plants for 
the preparation of a large part of their nutriment. 

3. They feed upon both living and dead organisms. 

• 4. Those living upon dead organic matter are known as Sapro- 
phytes. 

5. The moulds that destroy stored vegetables and fruits are ex- 
amples of saprophytes. 

6. Fungi that obtain their food from living creatures are known 
as Parasites. 

7. The vegetative portion of a fungus consists of minute threads 
known as Hyphse (d). 

8. A mass of these hyphse is spoken of collectively as the my- 
celium (b) which spread between or into the cells of the host 
and absorbs its food material from them. 

9. Fungi form no seeds but are reproduced by means of spores. 
(F). 

a. These serve the same purpose as seeds but are produced in 



MANUAL OF HORTIOULTUBE 



195 



much greater numbers and are much more simple in 

structure. 

They are too small to be seen with the eye and so light 

that they are readily scattered by the wind. 

Spores may be divided into two classes, Fig. 167. 

1. The summer spores (f ) are produced in enormous num- 




D V i? 

Fig. 167 shows the structure of the scab fungus. (N. H. Exp. Station.) 

A. Portion of a section through a scab spot on an apple showing the fungus 

1. a — The cuticle or rind of an apple. 

2. b— Fungus spreading under and lifting the cuticle 

3. c — Partly disorganized cells of the apple. 

B. Sporophores. 

1- <i — Two spores-bearings stalks (hyphae). 
2. f — Summ'er spores cut off from the hyphae. 

C. Spores germinating or hj'phae. 

^' th'i'^^oun^d '"ove^wi'nti'r^''^ developed in an infected apple leaf which has lain on 

}■ g— Perithecium or spore case containing a bundle of spore sacs (asci). 
^' £^^ spores (asci) each containing 8 two-celled winter spores 
F. Three two-celled winter spores. 



196 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

bers and serve for the spread of the disease in the sum- 
mer. 

2. The winter spores (g) can endure more unfavorable 
conditions and serve to carry the disease over winter 
and through dry seasons. 

3. The spores are usually produced in a protective body 
called Perithecium (B). 

4. The spores that are produced in the perithecia are en- 
closed in a sac called Asci (g). 

d. The spores germinate by sending out germ tubes (C). 
1. This tube or hypha may enter the host tissue and de- 
velop a new mycelium there. 

10. The breathing pores of the leaves and fruit and the wounds 
on the limbs and the trunk of the tree furnish opportunities 
to gain entrance to the host plant. 

11. The fact that the spores can germinate only in the presence 
of moisture and that the germ tube is thin-walled and deli- 
cate, gives an opportunity to destroy it before it gains en- 
trance to the host. 

12. The host plant should be sprayed with some substance which 
will be poisonous to the germinating spores and which will 
slowly dissolve in the dew or other moisture that may be on 
the plant. 

3. The three preventatives. 

a. Trees themselves should be resistant. 

1. They will resist if kept growing evenly and healthy. 

2. They should have cultivation, pruning and fertilization. 

3. Improper falling of leaves and buds growing in the fall are 
signs of improper nourishment and poor resistance to dis- 
eases. 

4. Varieties that are in themselves resistant to diseases should 
be selected. 

b. Proper environments. 

1. Clean orchards, good drainage, fertile soil, good cultivation, 
and good nursery stock are essential to prevent diseases, 
e. Spraying to kill the spores before they enter the host is the 
greatest preventative. 

Apple Scab. 

1. Cause. 

a. Apple scab is due to the presence of a fungus which grows 
beneath the cuticle of the leaves and fruit, invading the super- 
ficial cells with its branching threads. 

b. In a short time the fungus gives rise to groups of small stalks 
which break through the cuticle, or skin, and give forth numer- 
ous minute olive-colored spores. 

2. Description. 

a. The scab first appears early in the spring and these spores are 
scattered in April and May on the young buds and unfolding 
leaves, and new infections may continue to take place through- 
out the season. 

b. Scabs are circular, rough, somewhat irregulat in outline, grayish 
or olive green, becoming black when older, and range in size 



MANUAI^ OF HORTICULTURE 197 

^^ from mere specks to spots one-fourth to one-half inch in diam- 
eter. 

c. Two or more spots may coalesce, forming large, irregular scabby 
areas. 

d. The ruptured skin of the apple usually persists around the mar- 
gin of the spot, leaving a light-colored ring at the border of the 
healthy tissue. 

3. Spreads. 

a. These spores are blown about by the winds, and it is by means 
of these wind-dispersed spores that the infection takes place. 

b. The fungus is carried over winter in the diseased leaves on the 
ground, where spores of the perfect stage are produced, which 
are discharged in early spring as the young leaves and fruit 
buds begin to open. 

c. These winter spores start the infection which is further spread 
by the summer spores, soon produced by the new scab spots. 

d. The first spread is early in the season and second spread is in 
August. 

4. Damages. 

a. It affects the fruit of apples, pears and quinces. 

b. Young fruits affected with this disease may become pitted, one- 
sided, and otherwise distorted, and in severe cases the fruit be- 
comes cracked. 

c. The fungus may attack and destroy the blossoms and even the 
unopened buds ; the flower stalks may become so weakened by 
the disease that the young fruit drops off. 

b. Scabs are circular, rough, somewhat irregular in outline, grayish 

e. The disease also appears on both sides of the leaves and on the 
leaf-stalks in the form of smoky brown patches, which become 
swollen and blister-like. 

f. The winter spore stage on the leaves often causes the leaves to 
curl more or less and results in the premature shedding of the 
foliage. 

g. The fruit crop suffers in moist localities a greater loss by far 
from the attacks of scab than from any other fungous disease. 

h. It often affects 50 to 75 per cent of the crop over wide areas, 
and is not unfrequently responsible for total failures by killing 
the young fruits when in blossom or soon thereafter and by 
rendering the fruit too unsightly for the market. 

i. Scab has a wide distribution, being exceedingly serious in the 
Pacific Northwest, except in the dry climates similar to that of 
Yakima. 

5. Cold storage scab. 

a. The scab spots that develop in cold storage are either from col- 
onies that were too small to be seen on the fruit or from spores 
carried into the box with the fruit. 

b. The scab fungus is checked in its growth by low temperature 
and of cold storage. 

c. The black sunken spots develop on the fruit sometimes Y^ inch 
thick, before any break is made in the cuticle of the fruit. 

6. Study. 

a. Apple blotch. 



198 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

b. Bitter rot. 
7. Preventatives. 

a. See spraying calendars. 



Fig-. 168, shows scab on cold storage apples. 
(N. H. Exp. Station.) 

Black Rot, Cankers and Leaf Spot. 

1. Cause. 

a. The above three diseases have been found to be dne to a single 
fungus. 

b. Disease of fruit is called black rot; of branches, cankers; of 
leaves, leaf-spot. 

2. Description. 
a. Black rot. 

1. It is a dark brown or black in color, and affects the tissue 
of the fruits, causing them to be comparatively firm. 

2. It generally starts at the blossom end, but may start on any 
part of the fruit. 

3. It is primarily a rot of ripe fruit, but may be found on fruit 
several weeks before maturity. 

4. The spots may develop very slowly until picking time, then it 
begins to spread rapidly till the whole apple is involved. 

5. Numerous minute black elevations may be seen on the fruit 
as the rot develops ; these bodies contain the spores of the 
fungus. 

6. The worthless fruit is a breeding place for the spores. 



MAl^UAL OF HORTICULTURE 



199 



b. Canker. 

1. Black-rot Canker is a term ap- 
plied to the rough, unsightly 
diseased areas that are found 
on limbs. 

2. It destroys the bark and lays 
bare portions of the wood. 

3. It attacks the larger limbs 
where it may be detected by 
the swollen appearance of 
limbs, tne rough, black bark 
and in many instances, bare 
wood, black and decaying. 

4. It may girdle the limb causing 
the part above the girdle to die. 

5. It is sometimes called the 
"New York apple tree cank- 
er." 

c. Leaf spot. 

1. It attacks the foliage after the 
buds break, and the young 
leaves show small reddish- 
brown spots. 

2. When the leaves are full grown 
the spots are brown, brittle, 
circular and sharply defined 
outline. 

3. Several black specks about the 
size of a pinhead appear at the 
center of the spots. 

4. A secondary growth may start 
from the center spots. 

3. Spread. 
a. The above diseases are spread by 

means of spores. 

4. Damages. 

a. Black rot. 

1. It affects fruit of the apple, pear and quince. 

2. It causes the fruit to become hard and wrinkled. 

b. Canker. 

1. It affects the limbs of the apple, pear and quince. 

2. It interferes with the circulation of the sap and sometimes 
causes the tree to die. 

c. Leaf spot. 

1. It affects the foliage of the apple, pear and quince. 

2. This diseased condition causes the leaves to drop premature- 
ly, 'frequently leaving the trees denuded in early autumn, six 
weeks or two months before the normal period of leaf fall. 

3. Trees thus deprived of their foliage cease activity, and as a 
result the fruit is small and not properly matured ; the buds 
for the crop of the following year are weakened and in some 




Fig. 169.- 
canker. (N 



rot 



200 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



cases not fully developed, and the life of the tree is material 
ly shortened. 

4. These leaf diseases 
are partly responsi- 
ble for the failure of 
the trees to produce 
crops, and for the 
early decline of the 
orchard. 

5. Preventatives. 

a. Destroy all rot- 
ten fruit. 

b. Prune out all 
cankered limbs. 

c. Keep the orchard 
free from weeds 
and rubbage. 

d. See spraying cal- 
endar. 

Black Knot. 

1. Cause, 
a. It is caused by a fun- 
gus. 

2. Description. 

a. It causes a swelling un- 
derneath the bark, fin- 
ally rupturing it and 
developing a spongy 
texture covered with 
dark olive green mold. 

b. In this stage, the sum- 
mer spores are pro- 
duced. 

e. Later, the knot be- 
comes hard with a 
black surface inside of 
which are matured 
winter spores. 

d. The winter spores es- 
cape late in winter or 
early spring. 

3. Damag-es. 

a. It affects the plum, 
cherry and grape. 

b. It causes a peculiar black growth on the limbs, large branches 
and trunk of trees. 

c. It causes considerable damage to young .trees and vines. 

4. Preventatives. 

a. The infested parts should be destroyed. 

b. The winter knots should be destroyed before the spores escape. 

Brown Rot. 
1. Cause. 

a. It is caused by a fungus. 




Fig. 
vine. 



170. — Shows the black knot on a grape 
(Cal. Exp. Station.) 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUEE 



201 






Fi^. 171. — Shows brown rot of apricot. (Cal. Exp. Station.) 

b. Warm and moist weather causes the spores to germinate read- 
ily. 
Description. 

a. It affects the stone fruits. 

b. It causes the fruit to turn brown and rot, and develops on the 
skin a powdery brown coating. 

c. The coating consists of a number of minute spores. 

d. The germinating tubes penetrate the skin and develop a mass 
mycelium which destroys the tissue of the apple causing it to 
rot. 

6. The spores remain in the fried up fruit until the following sea- 
son when they start the disease again, 
f. The spores also pass the winter in diseased branches. 



202 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



7. Preventatives. 

a. See spraying calendar. 

Crown Gall. 

1. Cause. 

a. Crown gall is caused by bacteria and slime mold. 

2. Description. 

a. It is an abnormal outgrowth and may appear on the trunk, at 
the crown, or anywhere on the roots. 

b. The knots are irregular in form, rough on the surface, soft and 
spongy within, and of various sizes. 

3. Two types. 

a. Hard callous type. 

1. It is found on grafted trees at the union of the roots and 
scion. 

2. It is also found on root system where wounds are caused by 
cultivation or transplanting of trees. 

b. Soft type. 

1. It is found more common on seedlings but may be found on 
grafted stock, 

4. Hairy-root. 

a. It has an excessive production of small fibrous roots originating 
in clusters from the main root. 

b. It is characterized both in seedlings and in grafted or budded 
trees by a stunted root system. 

c. Galls often occur in connection with hairy-root but are a result 
of wounds rather than a form of the hairy-root disease. 

5. Spread. 

a. It is spread in the orch- 
ard from tree to tree by 
means of culture. 

b. It is spread by nursery 
stock. 

6. Damages. 

a. It is fatal to all kinds of 
orchard trees. 

b. The knots are detriment- 
al to the tree and when 
they occur at the crown, 
the tree is worthless. 

c. Trees being affected with 
crown gall produce infer- 
ior fruit. 

7. Preventatives. 

a. Affected trees should nev- 
er be planted. 

b. Avoid planting trees in 
soil that is infested by 
the disease. 

e. Apple trees should be re- 
moved from orchard 
when affected with the 
crown gall. 




Fig. 172. — Crown Gall on apple root. 
(N. H. Exp. Station.) 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



203 



Leaf Curl. 

1. Cause. 

a. It is caused by a fungus. 

2. Description. 

a. It affects the leaves and sometimes the twigs of peach trees. 

b. It causes the leaves to distort, crumple, and curl. 

e. It can be readily detected in the spring when the leaves first 
start. 

3. Preventatives. 

a. See spraying calendar. 

Fruit Rot. 
1. Cause. 

a. It is caused by a fungus growing under the epidermis of the 
apple like A in Fig. 167. 

b. Mycelia containing spore sacs (Spermogonia) are developed un- 
der the epidermis and when the spore cases are matured, they 
break through the epidermis and discharge the spores. 

c. The thick walled spores are common in the apple and carry the 
disease over winter. 




Fig-. 173. — Shows the fruit spots of an apple. 
(Cal. Exp. Station.) 

Description. 

a. First, the fruit spots may be seen as deep red on the colored 
surface of the apple and of a dark green on the lighter portion, 

b. As the spots become larger, they become slightly sunken and 
more colored. 



204 



JMANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



e. Numerous black specks appear causing the center of the spot to 
have a black appearance. 

d. The tissue beneath the spots is rendered brown and corky. 

e. The disease is spread by the matured spore sacs discharging the 
spores on the surface of the apple. 

3. Damage. 

a. This fungus does not attack the fruit until nearly grown. 

b. It causes the rottening of the ripening fruit of the apple, cher- 
ry, plum, apricot and peach. 

c. This fungus may attack the twigs and blossoms when the weath- 
er is warm and moist. 

d. The rotted fruit remains on the tree over winter in a mummied 
form and the following spring under favorable weather con- 
ditions becomes covered with spores by means of which the 
disease is propagated. 

7. Preventatives. 

a. Destroying all mummied fruits before growth starts in the 
spring. 

b. See spraying calendar. 

Fire Blight. 
1. Cause. 

a. It is caused by a bacterial disease which gains entrance to the 
tree through insect wounds or the flowers. 

b. The insects are attracted by a dark, mucilaginous fluid that 
oozes from the diseased wood in the spring and which is swim- 
ming with bacteria. 




Pig. 174. — Shows pear blig-ht. (Cal. Exp. Station.) 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



205 



c. The blight gains entrance to the tree in a majority of cases 
through the flowers, and as the flowers are borne upon spurs, 
and as these spurs are developed from wood which is one or 
more years of age. 

2. Description. 

a. It is known as the apple twig blight, blossom blight and pear 
blight. 

b. It causes the leaves, blossoms and young fruit to wither, droop 
and turn black on the affected portions, remaining attached to 
the twigs during winter ; but sometimes they may drop off when 
the leaves fall. 

e. A tree that is severely attacked with the blight will often look 
as if a fire swept through the tree. 

d. The infection is largely through the blossoms and proceeds 
down and through the inner bark of the twigs and branches. 

e. The blight runs down into large limbs and remains alive over 
winter, producing the so-called '' hold-over" blight, or canker, 
which is the source of the following season's infection. Fig. 174. 

f. The blighted twigs, branches 
or trunks of a pear show a 

' red, sappy, juicy condition 
of the inner bark. 

g. It may creep back along the 
spur and form a blight can- 
ker on the tree. 

h. It may kill the new shoots of 
the present year's growth. 

i. The affected leaves and 
twigs turn black and finally 
die and sometimes the whole 
tree dies. 

j. A dark mucilaginous fluid 
that oozes from the diseased 
parts forms beads of gum 
which is swimming with 
bacteria. 

k. If one of the beads is put in 
a drop of water and exam- 
ined under a microscope, it 
will be found to contain bac- 
teria. 

1. It may be found on the blos- 
soms, twigs, watersprouts, 
stem, or any part of the tree. 

3. Spreads. 

a. The insects get some of the 
mucilaginous fluid on their 
feet or mouth parts and car- 
ry it from blossom to blos- 
som where the bacteria mul- 
tiply very rapidly. 

b. It takes place through the Fig-. 175.— shows the trunk of a pear 

tree that was treated for the blig-ht. 




206 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

blossom, tender shoots, or any wound on the tree, 
e. The bacteria continue to spread by breaking down the cells of 
the cambium layer. 

4. Damages. 

a. It affects the blossoms, twigs, large branches and the trunk of 
the apple, pear, crab apple and quince trees. 

b. It kills the blossoms, leaves, twigs and sometimes the entire tree. 

c. The fire blight is formed in the growing season and if allowed 
to remain in tree, becomes "hold-over" blight or canker. 

d. Fig. 175 shows the trunk of a pear affected with "hold-over" 
blight or canker. 

1. The bark was peeled off the trunk and the trunk was treated 
for the blight. 

2. "Where the cambium layer was not injured the bark grew 
back. 

3. The bare spot that is shown on the trunk is where the cam- 
bium layer was scraped off. 

5. Preventatives. 

a. The bacteria lies dormant during winter as "hold-over" blight 
or canker in the apple or pear tree. 

b. The hold-over blight is often the result of late infections which 
do not develop very much in the fall. 

c. The trees should be carefully pruned if there are any signs of 
the blight. 

d. The cut in pruning should be made several inches below the 
lowest sign of the discoloration. 

e. The pruning instruments should be sterilized with corrosive sub- 
limate. 

f. The wound or cut should be sterilized with corrosive sublimate. 

g. It therefore becomes evident that if these fruiting spurs are al- 
lowed to remain upon the large structural branches of the tree, 
and the blossoms of such a spur become affected by the blight, 
the blight will immediately become communicated to the frame- 
work branch upon which the spur is situated. 

h. It is evident that if the fruiting spurs which bear these blos- 
soms are kept off the large branches of the tree there is less lia- 
bility of injury to them from the blight. 

i. Persons engaged in fruit culture should pay the strictest atten- 
tion to the removal of all fruiting spurs from the main branches 
of the trees. 

j. This will force the development of spurs upon the smaller 
branches, and as these can be allowed to develop at a consider- 
able distance from the main body of the tree, contamination 
Avith the blight will only necessitate the removal of one of these 
smaller, minor branches, rather than the loss of a main frame- 
work branch. 

k. By systematically cutting out all blighted branches which ap- 
pear among the fruit-bearing branches of a properly pruned 
pear tree, it will at once rid the tree of the blight, without any 
serious detriment to the tree itself. 



IVIANUAL OF HORTTCUT.TURE 



207 




Fig. 176. — Shows apple twig affected by mildew. (Cal. Exp. Station.) 



Mildew. 

1. Cause. 

a. It is caused by a surface- growing fungus. 

2. Description. 

a. The early stages appear as white frost-like patches on the leaves, 
twigs and fruit. 



208 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



b. The leaves on new growths are most susceptible to attacks and 
are much crumpled and dwarfed. 

c. It attacks fruit, making the flesh under the spots hard and the 
skin takes on a brown color. 

3. Damages. 

a. Mildew affects the twigs, leaves, and fruit of apple and peach 
trees. 

b. It checks the growth of twigs or kills them outright. 

c. The hardening of the flesh of fruit makes it unmarketable and 
sometimes the entire crop is ruined. 

4. Preventatives. 

a. See spraying calendar. 

Root Rot. 

1. Causes. 

a. Several different fungi seem to cause 
this disease among which armillaria 
mellea is probably the most import- 
ant. 

b. The fungi that cause root rot of the 
fruit trees are generally called the 
"toad stool" fungi. 

2. Two types. 

a. The fungi that affect the roots. 

b. The fungi that affect the stem. 

3. Description. 

a. The first indication is the appear- 
ance on the trunk and branches of 
dark brown spots caused by exuda- 
tion of sap. 

b. The bark dries down to the wood 
and has a dark color. 

c. The disease causes a splitting of the bark. 

d. The affected trees ripen their foliage early in the fall and the 
bark of the branches has a reddish cast. 

e. The inner wood of the branches has a dark color. 

f. The dead trees are found to be girdled just below the ground 
and the roots are decayed. 

Russeting-. 
1. Causes. 

a. By long continued cloudy, wet weather immediately after the 
setting of the fruit. 

b. By spraying with Bordeaux mixture during cloudy wet weather. 




Fii 



177. — Shows the effect of 
root rot canker. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



209 



cd By the freezing of the 
dew on the fruit while 
young. 
Description. 

a. It affects the apple and 
the pear. 

b. The fruit shows areas 
on which the skin is 
rough, brown and 
corky. 

c. These areas may be ir- 
regular, in which case 
the fruit is said to be 
russeted, or it may 
form a definite area 
around the fruit, pro- 
ducing a condition 
called belting. 

Snnbiirn. 

Description. 

a. The bark on one side 
of the tree dies and 
wounds are left on the 
tree. 




Fig. 178.- 



-Sliows sunburn on an apple trunk. 
(Cal. Exp. Station.) 



b. The wound becomes infested with a fungus which shows itself 
in a cluster of small bracket-like growths something like a toad- 
stool. 

c. The fungus works into the sapwood of cambium. 

d. The apple is quite susceptible to winter sunburn injury of the 
trunk and branches. 

e. It is prevented by painting the trunk with whitewash ; keeping 
the ground covered with vegetation or a mulch of some sort. 

Apple Rosette. 
(By F. A. Huntley.) 

1. Causes. 

a. Apple rosette is a condition resulting from defective nutrition 
of the tree and may be caused by : 

b. Trees standing too close together, thus impairing both leaf and 
root action. 

e. Lack of soil fertility. 

d. Neglect of cultivation. 

e. Persistent shallow cultivation. 

f. A hardpan subsoil. 

g. A cold subsoil (occasioned by the presence of seepage or spring 
water) . 

h. A water-saturated subsoil moisture, 
i. Insufficient subsoil moisture, 
j. Impaii^ed soil drainage. 

2. Description. 

a. The leaves on one or more branches of the tree fail to develop 
and have a yellowish appearance. 

b. The branches on which these leaves appear fail to elongate and 



210 



IVIANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



at a time of the year when they would normally have grown one 
to three feet, ordinarily, would make no terminal growth what- 
ever. 

c. The wood of the previous year's growth has failed to grow and 
has a sickly or shriveled appearance. 

d. The bark of the tree is often yellowish ; the. cambium layer lacks 
vigor as is manifested at the top. 




Fig. 179. — Shows tooth healthy and rosetted twigs. 

1. Shows a healthy nursery twig one year old. 
a. Note the appearance of the buds. 

2. Shows a rosetted nursery twig one year old. 

a. Note the appearance of the buds. 

b. Caused by poor soil and hard-pan a foot below the surface. 

c. Note that the terminal bud looks shriveled. 
3-4-5 are taken from a bearing tree. 

a. They show that they bore leaves by the leaf -scars. 

b. They show no fruit buds or healthy leaf growth. 

c. They can never produce a terminal growth. 

d. The growth can only take place from lateral buds lower 
down on the twig. 

3. Study Fig. 180. . 

a. Note the healthy and rosetted twigs on the same branch. 

b. Note how the ends of the twigs are affe.cted. 

c. The texture of the wood of a rosetted twig is found to be spongy 
when examined. 

4. The improper nutrition may be caused by lack of available plant 
food. 

5. The restriction of the root expansion may be caused by hard pan 
or a dry subsoil. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



211 




Fig. ISO. — Shows healthy resetted twigs. 

6. Any injury to the structure of any part of the plant will 
hinder the function of the injured part; flow of the sap 
which carries the plant food from the roots to the leaves 
will be checked. 

7. Remedies. 

a. Plant trees 30 feet apart each way to admit sun and air. 

b. Plow deeply every fall. 

c. Fertilize the soil with stable manure or plowing under 
green crops in the spring following deep fall plowing and 
seeding. 

d. Provide free drainage to a depth of at least four feet. 

e. Irrigate to the full depth and throughout the expansion 
of the root system. 

f. Irrigate seldom but thoroughly. 

g. Practice surface cultivation throughout the entire spring 
and summer. 



212 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

SPRAYING. 

1. Important principles. 

a. The habits and characteristics of each insect and fungus should be studied. 

b. A study of the different varieties of fruits as to their susceptibility to fungi 
and insects. 

c. A knowledge of how to protect the susceptible varieties from fungi and 
insects. 

d. A knowledge of the inter-relation between crops and fungi and insects. 

e. A knowledge of how to care for orchards and to watch for new pests. 

f. A study of how fungi and insects are distributed. 

2. Objects of spraying. 

a. It is to kill the fungi and insects directly. 

b. It is to coat the plant with poison which will kill the orchard pests. 

c. It is to give a better quality and greater quantity of fruit. 

3. The blooming periods depend on: 

a. Location as to latitude and altitude. 

b. Site as to air and water drainage. 

c. Exposure as to winds and frost. 

d. Soils: Black loamy, late; Sandy, early. 

e. The blooming period in some localities will be earlier, and other localities 
later than given in the following table, but the same relative time will exist 
between the different varieties as given in the table. 

4. The space between the X's indicate the blooming period. 

a. Early apple bloomers. 

Date. APRIL. 

Name. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 

Canada Sweet X X 

Early Strawb'ry X ; X 

Fallawater X X . . 

Graveinstein X X 

Haas X X 

Mann X X 

Duch. of Old'brg X X 

Ortley X X 

Red Astrachan X X 

Stark X X .. 

Transc'd't Crab X X 

Wolf River X X 

Wealthy X 



Whitney Crab 


X X 


b. Late apple bloomers. 


Date 
Name 


APRIL MAT 

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 



Arkansas Black X X 

Bailey's Sweet X X 

Beitigheimer X X 

Ben Davis X X 

Baldwin X X . . 

Canada Red X X 

Fameuse X X 

Gano X X .. 

Grimes Golden X X 

Hyslop Crab X X 

Hyde's King X X 

Hoover X X . . 

Jonathan X . . X 

King of Tompkins County X X 

Mammoth Black Twig X X 

McMahon's "WTiite X X 

Maiden's Blush X X .. .. 

Tellow Newtown X X 

Northern Spy X X . . 

Pewaukee X X 

Rhode Island Greening X . . . , X . . 

Rome Beauty X 

Rambo X X . . 

Red Cheek Pippin X ' X 

Spitzenberg X X . . 

Salome X X 

Shiawassee X X 

Sweet Bough X X 

Tolman Sweet X . . X 

Walbridge X a. 

'Wagener X X . . 

Winesap X X 

York Imperial X X 

Tellow Transparent X X 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTUKE 213 

c. Early pear bloomers. 

Date MARCH APRIL 

Name 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

Clairg-eau X X 

Keiff er X X 

Lincoln X X . . '.'. 

Lawrence X X . . '.'. 



Le Comte 


X X 






d. Late pear bloomers. 


Date 

Name 


APRIL 

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 



Anjou X 

Anjouleme X X 

Clapp's Favorite .. X X .. 

Easter Buerre X X 

Flemish X X '. . 

Howell X X '. . . . . . . . 

Idaho X X 

Seckel X X . . '. . 

Tyson X '. . X 

Vicar X X 



winter iMeiiis X X 


e. Early cherry bloomers. 


Date 

Name 


MARCH APRIL 

31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 



Early Purple Guigne X X 

Elton X 

Lincoln X . . .'. . . . . . . . . . . . . 



f. Late cherry bloomers. 



Date 

Name 


APRIL 
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 


Morello 


X X 


May Duke 


X X 


Montmorency ■ 


X X 


Royal Ann (Napoleon) 


X X .. .. 



g. The blooming period of each variety should be studied and tabulated for each 
locality. 

h. The blooming period is important as upon which depends the time to give 
the different sprays and also the development of the fungi and insects. 

5. How to spray. 

-a. Spray thoroughly. 

b. Direct your attention to the hardest places to reach. 

c. Cover every surface and wet behind the buds. 

d. Reach the bottom of every crack and fill each lower calyx cup. 

e. Do not try to economize on spray. 

f. Use a high-pressure pump (at least 200 lbs.). 

g. Use Bordeaux nozzels only and an 8-foot spray rod. 

h. Have a crook to set the nozzles at an angle of 43 degrees. 
i. Spray from a tower if the trees are beyond your reach. 

6. How to give the calyx spray. 

a. Washington Bulletin No. 45. 

7. The best spray poison. 

a. Washingtori Bulletin No. 45. 
b. Washington . Bulletin No. 28. 
c. Washington Spray Calendar. 



214 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 

8. Apple blossoms. 




d. 



Fig-. 181. — Shows the apple blossom in difEerent stages of development. 
(Neb. Exp. Station.) 

1 shows a cluster bud before opening (first spray) for fungi. 

2 shows a cluster bud opened (wrong time to spray). 

3 shows the flower after petals have dropped off (first spray for codling moth 
and cureulio) and also second spray for fungi. 

4 shows the calyx lobes beginning 




to close (second spray for codling 
moth) . 

e. 5 shows calyx lobes almost closed 
(somewhat late for second spray 
for codling moth). 

f. 6 shows calyx lolaes closed (no poi- 
son can enter the calyx cup). 

Parts of the blossom. Fig. 182. 

a. 1 shows the calyx lobes. 

b. 2 shows the stamens. 

c. 3 shows the pistil. 

d. 4 shows the calyx cup. 

e. Study figure 65. 

f. The central or terminal bud in each 
fruit cluster is generally the first 
one to open its bloom. 

g. Its petals are first to drop and the 
central blooms generally set the 
best quality of fruit. 

h. Calyx cup. Fig. 182. 

1. The calyx cup is in the center of the flower around the pistil. 

2. It is hidden from view by the stamens. 

3. The stamens must be forced apart by the spray in order to reach the 
calyx cup. 



Fig. 182. — Sectional diagram of an apple 
blossom. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



215 



4. The spray must fill the calyx cup in order to kill the insects that crawl 
into the calyx cup. 

5. The poison generally remains in the calyx cup throughout the season. 

6. The first spray will kill the codling moth and curculio. 

7. The spray on the outside of the apple will wear off and must be renewed. 
10. Calyx condition. Fig. 183. 

a. The left shows calyx lobes open and some more closed than others ; right 
time for first spray. 

b. The right shows calyx lobes closed and almost too iate for first spray. 

c. The direction of the calyces should be kept in mind. 

1. One-third of the calyces should point downward. 

2. Two-thirds of the calyces should point upward. 

3. Some, of course^ will point in all directions. 

4. The calyces on the center and top will generally point upward. 

5. The calyces on the limbs will generally point downward. 

6. The center and top calyces will close first. 




Fig. 183. — Shows a cluster of young apples. 



Plans of Treatment. 

1. Fall spraying. 

a. Spray just after the leaves fall. 

b. What to spray for and how. 

1. See spraying calendar, or, 

2. Sulphur lime calendar. 

2. Winter spras^ng. 

a. Spray while buds are swelling. 

b. What to spray for and how. 

1. See spraying calendar. 

2. See sulphur lime calendar. 

3. Spring spraying. 

a. Spray when flower buds are ready to open. 
1. Wliat to spray for and how. 

a. See spraying calendar. 

b. See sulphur lime calendar. 

b. Spray while the last blossoms are failing. 

1. WTiat to spray for and how. 
a. See spraying calendar. 

2. It is rare that a moth emerges from its winter-pupa-case before most of 
the petals have fallen; often it does not take place until a week or two 
after this time. 

3. The moths mate and eggs are laid in a day or two, which hatch in about 
8 days (first brood of worms). 

4. The object of spraying is to ooat the food of the newly hatched worm 
with poison. 

5. Since most worms attack the apple at the blossom end, it is necessary to 
fill this part of the fruit with poison. 



216 MANUAL OF HORTICULTUitL 

6. This can be done only during the week or ten days immediately follow- 
ing the blossoming period, before the calyx lobes fold over. 

7. Sometimes for the sake of thoroughness, the calyx spraying is repeated a 
few days later. 

8. While the first spraying primarily aims to fill the calyx cup, it coats the 
outside of the apples and leaves as well. 

9. This exterior poison reduces the number of side entering worms of the 
first brood. 

10. At this time one spraying may be sufficient, if thoroughly done, depend- 
ing upon the number of calyx cups which are open in condition to receive 
the spray and the number which examination proves to have been pene- 
trated by the spray. 

11. The trees should be banded and observed whether many or few worms 
are trapped; bands catch about one-half of the worms. 

12. The first or calyx spray is given sometime before the first brood of cod- 
ling worms appear. 

13. By the time the eggs are hatching, the young apples will have grown 
considerably and a second or even a third spray may be deemed necessary 
to coat the apples. 

14. The above constitutes the first or calyx spray for the codling moth. 

15. Summary of sprays for codling moth. 

a. First or calyx spray — just after the blossom petals fall; there may be 
one, two or three sprays at this time. 

b. Second — about three weeks later. 

c. Third — from July 15 to Aug. 10, depending upon season and locality. 

d. Fourth — about one month later. 
c. Other sprays. 

1. See spraying calendar. 

2. See sulphur lime calendar. 

4. Summer spraying. 

a. Spray when pest appears. 
1. WTiat to spray for and how. 

a. See spraying calendar. 

b. See sulphur lime calendar. 

5. References. 

a. Washington Bulletins Nos. 28, 45, 81. 

b. Idaho Bulletin No. 55. 




MANUAL OF HORTICULTUEE 



217 



A SULPHUR-LIME SPRAYING CALENDAR. 



When to Spray 


What to Spray For. 


Suggestions. 


When buds are 
swelling. 


San Jose scale. 
Oyster shell scale. 
Blister mite. 
Any scale insects. 




deaux 
from 
buds 


Moss. 
Lichens. 




se the Bor 
)pray down 
t behind the 


Green aphis. 


This treatment for the eggs is 
more effective than summer 
sprayings with tobacco or 
kerosene emulsion. 


3 u^ (U 


Bud moth. 

Peach twig borer. 


If Insects appear later apply 
arsenate of lead. 


Ith for 
i a crc 
tranche 


Woolly aphis. 


The wool must be wetted 
through. 


^ i - 


Peach leaf curl. 




Spray 
nozzle 
above t 


Peach mildew. 
Apple mildew. 
Grape mildew. 
Rose mildew. 
Gooseberry mildew. 


If mildews appear during sum- 
mer apply sulphur-lime imme- 
diately. 


Just before blos- 
soms open. 


Apple scab. 
Pear scab. 


This checks most of the scab. 
Where there is much scab we 
suggest a spraying as soon as 
the blossoms fall. 


When the pest ap- 
pears. 


Red spider. 

Young- of oyster shell scale. 


Use half strength with Black- 
leaf 40, 1 to 1000, and fishoil 
soap added. 




Aphis. 






Grasshoppers. 
Cutworms. 
Flea beetles. 


As a repellant. 




Sheep scab. 
Sheep ticks. 


Dip the sheep. 


Keep the trunks 
coated all 
summer. 


Trunk and bark borers. 


Add strong sulphur-lime to a 


Keep the trunks 

coated all 

winter. 


Rabbits and field mice. 


thick whitewash of slaked 
lime. 


As soon as the 
leaves fall. 


Black spot canker. 


Repeat in two weeks. 


Frequenl^y durin'g 
the summer. 


Typhoid fly. 


Spray manure piles and privies 
for fly maggots. 




Chicken mites and lice. 


Spray the roosts and the in- 
sides of chicken houses. 



218 



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MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



221 



SULPHUR-LIME. 

Sulphur, 1 pound; Fresh stone lime, I/2 pound; Water, Vz gallon. 

Slake the lime in the cooker. Add the sulphur and the water. Boil briskly till the 
sulphur is dissolved (about 45 minutes), stirring- continuously and keeping the cooker 
covered. As it boils down keep adding water. When finished let settle. Use only 
the clear liquid, which may be stored if kept from the air. Prepared in this way 
sulphur-lime should have a hydrometer reading of about 26 degrees, but little weaker 
than the factory-made product. Write for bulletin on sulphur-lime. 

For use, any concentrated sulphur -lime may be diluted according to the following 
table: 



Hydrometer test of concentrate. 


1 To make dilute spray. 






Beaume, 3° 


Beaume, 1.5° 






Sp. gr. 1.02 


Sp. gr. 1.01 


Beaume 


Specific 


1 lb. sulphur 


1 lb. sulphur 


Degrees. 


Gravity. 


in 5 gal. 


in 10 gal. 






Winter spray. 


Summer spray. 


34 


1.302 


1 to 14 water 


1 to 28 


32 


1.279 


13 


26 


30 


1.259 


12 


24 


28 


1.236 


11 


22 


26 


1.215 


10 


20 


24 


1.196 


9 


18 


20 


1.158 


7 


14 


16 


1.122 


6 


11 



OIL SPRAY. 

Crude oil emulsion for winter spraying: Fish-oil soap, 10 pounds (dissolved in 10 
gallons hot water; Lye, 2 pounds (dissolved in 1 gallon water). Mix, add water to 
make 88 gallons; run agitator at full speed, and add Crude oil, 10 gallons. When 
emulsified do not add anything else to the spray liquid, or free oil will separate. 

TOBACCO. 

Blackleaf 40, I21/2 pounds; Fish-oil soap, 35 pounds; Water, 1000 gallons. Dissolve 
the soap in hot water. Blackleaf (old style) is one-tenth as strong. For orchard 
mites or scab add 36 gallons of 32° sulphur-lime. 

BORDEAUX. 

Bluestone, 6 pounds; Good lime, 4 pounds; water, 50 gallons. Dissolve the bluestone 
by suspending it in a sack in 25 gallons of water in a barrel. Slake the lime in 
another vessel, adding a little water slowly, and dilute to 25 gallons. Mix the two 
thoroughly. Even the best Bordeaux may scorch in rainy weather. 



POISON MASH. 

Bran and flour, 25 parts; Paris green or zinc arsenate, 1 part. 

to form a stiff mash and season with stale beer or molasses. 



Mix dry, add water 



ARSENATE OF LEAD. 

Arsenate of lead (poison), 1 pound; water, 50 gallons. For newly hatched insects 
it is not necessary to use it stronger. For old or large insects use double the quan- 
tity. Mix the paste well with a small amount of water. Powdered arsenate of lead 
is about twice as strong as the paste. Do not use arsenate that settles quickly or 
feels gritty. Arsenite of zinc powder is about four times as strong as paste lead. It 
may scorch in a damp season. 



SPRAYING PROGRAM FOR THE MORE USUAL SPRAYINGS. 

-When buds begin to swell — Oil spray or sulphur-lime (3°), for scales and insect 



2 — Wlien new foliage is first appearing — Tobacco, for aphis, orchard mites, thrips. 



S^When flower clusters are ready to open — Sulphur-lime (1.5°), for apple and pear 
scab. With tobacco added for orchard mites, thrips, aphis. 

4 — When last petals are falling— Arsenate of lead, 1 lb. to 50 gal., for codling moth. 

5 — In November (for Western Washington) — Sulphur-lime (3°), for black-spot canker 

and general clean-up. 

Additional summer sprayings may be needed, as for codling moth, aphis, young 
oyster shell scales, orchard mites, etc 



MANUAL OP HORTICULTURE 



Index 



Acarina, 161. 

Air, 36, 39, 48. 

Anatomy of insects 158. 

Aphis 165-169. 

Apple blossom 5, 154, 214. 

Apple food 48-54. 

Apple leaf-hopper 164. 

Apple maggot 187. 

Apple scab 195-197. 

Apple Rosette 209. 

Apple tree tent caterpillar 185- 

Apple twig borer 188. 

Apricot 120. 

Arthropoda 156. 

Assimiliation 81. 

Bacteria 42, 50, 194, 204. 

Barometer 152. 

Biological 50. 

Blackberry 140. 

Black rot 198. 

Black knot 200. 

Blister mite 163. 

Blooming periods 212, 213. 

Branches 90, 101, 102. 

Bracing 119. 

Brown mite 161. 

Brown rot 200. 

Bud moth 181. 

Budding 67-70. 

Buds 5, 68, 86-90, 105. 

Buildings 32, 55. 

Bulbs 54. 

Bush fruit 98. 

Calendars 217-222. 

Calyx 5, 83, 214, 215. 

Canker 198, 205. 

Carbon dioxide 49, 51, 81. 

Case-bearer 181. 

Cherry 120. 

Climate 35. 

Codling moth 175. 

Coleoptera 187. 

Corms 54. 

Cover crops 52. 

Crown gall 202. 

Cryptogams 193. 

Cultivation 42, 48, 52, 66, 210. 

Currants 142. 

Cuttings 56-60. 

Cutworms 179. 

Description of fruit 6. 

Description of diseases 194-209. 

Dew 151-156. 

Dehorning 119. 



Diptera 187. 

Distance for planting 92, 93. 

Drainage 38, 40. 

Environments 89, 194, 196. 

Fall canker worm 183. 

Fall web worm 184. 

Fire blight 204-207. 

Flat-headed borer 187. 

Fertilizers 43-45. 

Floral envelope 5. 

Flowers 82-83, 214. 

Frost 151-156. 

Fruit bark beetle 188. 

Fruit buds 5, 6, 87, 88, 89. 

Fruit market 33-34. 

Fruit rot 203. 

Fruit zone 35. 

Fungi 194, 195, 198, 200, 203. 

Geography 34. 

Germination 73, 196. 

Gooseberry 142. 

Grading 11-14. 

Grafting 60-67. 

Grafting wax 70. 

Grape culture 126-137. 

Grape leaf -hopper 165. 

Green fruit worm 183. 

Hedges 144. 

Heading-out 99. 

Heading-in 100. 

Heading-back 100. 

Heating 155. 

Hemiptera 164. 

Humus 48, 53. 

Hymenoptera 190. 

Irrigation 45-48. 

Layering 70-72. 

Leaf 79-82. 

Leaf curl 203. 

Leaf spot 198. 

Lecanium 172. 

Leguminous 42, 53, 54. 

Lepidoptera 175. 

Lime 44, 52. 

Manufacture 81. 

Manuring 42. 

Metomorphosis 160. 

Method of planting 93-96. 

Mildew 207. 

Mixed planting 84-86. 

Moisture 45, 46, 48. 

Movement of water 46, 47. 

Neuroptera 175. 

Nitrates 39, 53. 



MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 



223 



Nitrogen 43, 50, 52, 53, 54. 
Nitrification 38, 50. 
Organs or reproduction 5, 82. 
Organic matter 38, 42, 48, 52. 
Ornamentals 143. 
Ornamental trees 144-150. 
Orthopoda 163. 
Osmosis 75. 
Ovary 5, 83. 
Oxygen 39, 81. 
Oyster shell scale 170. 
Packing 14-27: 

Boxes 14. 

Wrapping 15. 

Placing 16-17. 

Kind of packs 18-27. 

Bulge 26. 
Peach tree borer 186. 
Peach twig borer 186. 
Phosphate 42, 44, 52, 54. 
Photosynthesis 81. 
Physical properties 45. 
Physical condition 50, 53. 
Phylloxera, grape 168. 
Picking 7-11. 
Pistil 5, S3. 
Plans of spraying 215. 
Plant diseases 193-212. 
Plant food 42, 48-54. 
Planting 91-99. 
Plum curculio 189. 
Pollen 5, 84. 
Pollination 5, 84. 
Potash 42, 43, 52, 53, 54. 
Propagation 54-72. 
Pruning 99-122. 

Apple 106-109. 

Apricot 120. 

Cherries 120. 

Pear 109-111. 

Peach 112-120. 

Plum 121. 

Quince 111. 
Psychrometer 152. 
Purple scale 174. 
Psylla 165. 
Raspberry 140. 
Respiration 27, 81. 



Red spider 163. 
Rootstock 54. 
Root pruning 105. 
Root rot 208. 
Roots 49, 75-77. 
Round-headed borer 188. 
Russeting 208. 
San Jose scale 169. 
Sap 78. 
Saw-fly 190. 
Scale insects 169-175. 
Scion 61. 
Scurfy scale 171. 
Self-sterile 85. 
Self-fertile 85. 
Sections of fruit 6. 
(Setting of fruit 5, 84. 
Setting trees 97. 
Sites 35. 
Soils 36, 50. . 
Soil fertility 41-45. 
Space 37, 49. 
Spraying 212. 
Spores 55, 195. 
Spring canker worm 182. 
Starch 51. 
Stamens 5, 83. 
Stems 77, 78, 101. 
Strawberry 137-140. 
Stratification 72-74. 
Stock 61, 68. 
Stolen 54. 
Storage 28-32, 197. 
Suckers 54. 
Summer pruning 105. 
Sunshine 49. 
Sunburn 209. 
Temperature 48. 
Thinning 122-126. 
Tilling 37. 
Tops 102-105. 
Transpiration 51, 80. 
Transplanting 96, 98. 
Transportation 33, 35. 
Vascular system 6. 
Varieties 91, 92. 
Windbreaks 41. 
Weather 150. 




MAR 17 1913 



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